Travel Guide to Myanmar

21) Brief History

The history of Myanmar, a land of golden pagodas and ancient kingdoms, is a long and complex epic of migration, conflict, and cultural fusion. The earliest civilizations emerged in the fertile Irrawaddy River valley, with the Pyu city-states flourishing from the 2nd century BC. These city-states were centers of trade and Theravada Buddhism. However, the true genesis of the modern Burmese identity began with the migration of the Bamar (Burman) people from the north. In 849 AD, they established a powerful kingdom centered on the city of Bagan. For the next two centuries, the Bagan Kingdom unified the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery for the first time. This era was a golden age, most famously remembered for the construction of over 10,000 Buddhist temples, pagodas, and monasteries on the Bagan plains, an architectural and spiritual achievement of staggering scale. The kingdom’s influence waned in the late 13th century following repeated Mongol invasions, leading to a period of fragmentation into smaller kingdoms, most notably Ava and Pegu.

The 16th century witnessed the rise of the Toungoo Dynasty, which, under ambitious kings like Tabinshwehti and Bayinnaung, managed to reunite the country and create the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia. This empire was vast but short-lived, and the country once again experienced a period of decline and internal strife. The final royal dynasty, the Konbaung Dynasty, emerged in the mid-18th century under King Alaungpaya. This dynasty reasserted Burmese authority, founded the city of Yangon (then called Dagon), and engaged in conflicts with its neighbors, including Siam (modern-day Thailand) and China. This period of renewed Burmese power, however, brought the kingdom into direct conflict with a new and formidable global power: the British Empire. A series of three Anglo-Burmese Wars, fought between 1824 and 1885, resulted in the gradual loss of Burmese sovereignty. In 1886, the Konbaung kingdom was defeated, and the entire country was annexed into the British Indian Empire.

British colonial rule profoundly transformed the country, which was then known as Burma. The economy was restructured to serve colonial interests, focusing on the export of rice, teak, and other raw materials. This period also saw a large influx of laborers from India and China, which altered the country’s demographic landscape and created social tensions that persist to this day. A strong nationalist movement, led by figures like Aung San, emerged in the 1930s, demanding self-rule. After the devastation of World War II, in which Burma was a major battleground, the country finally achieved its independence from Britain on January 4, 1948. The post-independence era, however, was fraught with challenges. The country was plagued by ethnic insurgencies, political instability, and economic stagnation. In 1962, a military coup led by General Ne Win ushered in decades of authoritarian socialist rule and international isolation. A pro-democracy uprising in 1988 was brutally suppressed, but it led to the rise of Aung San Suu Kyi, the daughter of the independence hero Aung San, as a global icon of peaceful resistance. Despite a period of tentative democratic reforms in the 2010s, the country’s journey has remained turbulent, culminating in a military coup in February 2021, which once again plunged the nation into a deep political and humanitarian crisis.

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22) Geography

The geography of Myanmar is one of striking diversity and immense natural wealth, encompassing a vast and varied landscape that ranges from snow-capped Himalayan peaks to pristine tropical coastlines. As the largest country in mainland Southeast Asia, it shares borders with Bangladesh and India to the northwest, China to the northeast, and Laos and Thailand to the east and southeast. The country’s topography is dominated by a series of mountain ranges that run in a north-south direction, forming a giant horseshoe shape that encloses the central lowlands. In the far north, the mountains bordering China and India are an extension of the mighty Himalayas, containing Myanmar’s highest peak, Hkakabo Razi, which soars to an elevation of 5,881 meters (19,295 feet). To the west, the Rakhine Yoma and Chin Hills form a natural barrier with the Indian subcontinent, while the Shan Plateau in the east rises to an average elevation of 1,000 meters, creating a distinct highland region with its own unique climate and culture.

The heart of Myanmar is the central basin, a vast and fertile plain that is drained by the country’s most important river systems. The lifeblood of the nation is the Irrawaddy River (also known as the Ayeyarwady), which flows for over 2,170 kilometers from the northern highlands down to the Andaman Sea, forming a massive and agriculturally vital delta. The Irrawaddy, along with its main tributary, the Chindwin, has served as the country’s primary transportation artery and the cradle of its major civilizations for centuries. Other significant rivers include the Sittaung and the Salween, which also flow southwards, contributing to the fertility of the lowlands. This central basin is where the majority of the population lives and where most of the country’s rice and other crops are grown. The country also possesses several large and scenic lakes, with Inle Lake in the Shan State being the most famous, known for its unique floating villages and the distinctive leg-rowing style of its Intha fishermen.

Myanmar’s long coastline stretches for over 1,930 kilometers along the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea, offering a stunning and largely undeveloped tropical paradise. The coastline is fringed with beautiful white-sand beaches, mangrove swamps, and a vast archipelago of over 800 islands, the Mergui Archipelago, in the far south. The country’s climate is tropical, dominated by the monsoon. The rainy season, from May to October, brings heavy rainfall, particularly to the coastal and delta regions. The cool, dry season, from November to February, is the most pleasant time for travel, while the hot, dry season, from March to April, can see temperatures soar, especially in the central plains. This diverse geography, with its mountains, rivers, plains, and coastline, has endowed Myanmar with a rich tapestry of ecosystems and a wealth of natural resources, including timber, minerals, and fertile land, which have profoundly shaped its history and culture.

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23) Politics and Government

The political and governmental structure of Myanmar is currently in a state of extreme crisis and is not functioning under its constitutional framework. On February 1, 2021, the Tatmadaw, the armed forces of Myanmar, staged a coup d’état, detaining the democratically elected leaders of the civilian government, including State Counsellor Aung San Suu Kyi and President Win Myint. The military declared a year-long state of emergency and established a new governing body, the State Administration Council (SAC), led by the commander-in-chief, Senior General Min Aung Hlaing. This action effectively nullified the results of the November 2020 general election, which had delivered a landslide victory to Aung San Suu Kyi’s National League for Democracy (NLD) party. The coup has been met with widespread domestic resistance and international condemnation, leading to a deep and ongoing political, social, and humanitarian crisis. The country’s governance is currently directed by the military junta, which exercises absolute executive, legislative, and judicial power, a situation that stands in direct opposition to the constitutional order that was in place prior to the coup.

Prior to the 2021 coup, Myanmar’s political system was defined by the 2008 constitution, which was drafted by the previous military regime. This constitution established a unitary presidential republic with a bicameral legislature. It was a hybrid system that sought to blend democratic elements with a significant and constitutionally guaranteed role for the military. The President was the head of state and head of government, elected by the Presidential Electoral College, which consisted of members from the two houses of parliament and military-appointed legislators. The position of State Counsellor, created in 2016 for Aung San Suu Kyi, was a de facto head of government role. The legislative branch, the Assembly of the Union (Pyidaungsu Hluttaw), was composed of two houses: the House of Nationalities (Amyotha Hluttaw) and the House of Representatives (Pyithu Hluttaw). A crucial and controversial feature of this constitution was the allocation of 25% of the seats in both houses of parliament to serving military personnel, who were appointed by the commander-in-chief. This gave the military an effective veto over any constitutional amendments and ensured its continued influence in the country’s politics.

In opposition to the military junta, a parallel government, known as the National Unity Government (NUG), was formed in April 2021 by a group of ousted lawmakers and representatives of various ethnic groups. The NUG considers itself to be the legitimate government of Myanmar and is working to garner international recognition and to coordinate the resistance movement against the military regime. This includes the formation of People’s Defence Forces (PDFs), which are engaged in armed conflict with the Tatmadaw in various parts of the country. The political situation in Myanmar is therefore highly contested and volatile, with two rival entities claiming to be the legitimate government. The country is effectively in a state of civil war, with no clear path to a resolution in sight. The future of politics and governance in Myanmar remains profoundly uncertain, dependent on the outcome of the ongoing conflict and the struggle between the forces of military authoritarianism and the popular demand for democracy.

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24) Law and Criminal Justice

The law and criminal justice system in Myanmar is currently in a state of profound disarray and is not functioning in accordance with the principles of the rule of law or international human rights standards. Following the military coup of February 1, 2021, the State Administration Council (SAC), the military junta, has effectively dismantled the country’s legal and judicial framework and is using it as a tool of repression against its opponents. The junta has suspended key constitutional protections, amended laws to broaden its powers of arrest and surveillance, and established military tribunals to try civilians. These tribunals are notorious for their lack of due process, with defendants often denied access to legal counsel, subjected to summary trials, and handed down harsh sentences, including the death penalty. The judiciary, which already faced challenges with independence prior to the coup, is now completely under the control of the military, and there is no semblance of judicial impartiality or fairness. The legal system is being weaponized to target pro-democracy activists, journalists, politicians, and anyone perceived as a threat to the regime.

Prior to the coup, Myanmar’s legal system was a complex hybrid, primarily based on the English common law system, which was inherited from the British colonial period. This was supplemented by customary law, particularly in matters of personal status for certain ethnic communities, and by statutes enacted by the parliament. The 2008 constitution provided the framework for the judicial system, which was supposed to be an independent branch of government. The court system was structured with a Supreme Court at its apex, followed by High Courts at the state and regional level, and various lower courts at the district and township level. However, even during the period of democratic transition, the judiciary was widely seen as being weak, under-resourced, and susceptible to corruption and executive influence. The rule of law was not firmly established, particularly in the country’s conflict-affected ethnic states, where a culture of impunity for human rights abuses by the military was prevalent.

In the current context, the criminal justice system is characterized by arbitrary arrests and detentions, torture and ill-treatment of detainees, and a complete lack of accountability for security forces. The junta has used a range of vaguely worded laws, such as those relating to incitement, sedition, and unlawful association, to imprison thousands of political opponents. The conditions in the country’s prisons are dire, with severe overcrowding, poor sanitation, and inadequate food and medical care. The law enforcement system, including the police force, is under the direct control of the military and is used as an instrument of state repression. The international community, including the United Nations and various human rights organizations, has documented widespread and systematic human rights violations being committed by the security forces, which amount to crimes against humanity. The collapse of the rule of law and the criminal justice system has created a climate of fear and impunity and is a central feature of the deep and ongoing crisis in Myanmar.

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25) Foreign Relations

The foreign relations of Myanmar are currently in a state of extreme turmoil and polarization, fundamentally reshaped by the military coup of February 2021. The international community is deeply divided in its response to the military junta, the State Administration Council (SAC). A significant portion of the world, particularly Western democracies such as the United States, the United Kingdom, and the European Union, has strongly condemned the coup, refused to recognize the junta as the legitimate government, and imposed a range of sanctions on military leaders and their economic interests. These countries have called for the restoration of the democratically elected government, the release of all political prisoners, including Aung San Suu Kyi, and a cessation of the military’s violent crackdown on the civilian population. They have largely engaged with the National Unity Government (NUG), the parallel government formed by ousted lawmakers, recognizing it as a key stakeholder in any future democratic process.

In contrast, a number of other countries, including some of Myanmar’s immediate neighbors and major global powers like China and Russia, have taken a more cautious and non-interventionist approach. These countries have emphasized the principle of non-interference in internal affairs and have continued to engage with the military junta, albeit to varying degrees. China and Russia have provided diplomatic cover for the junta at the United Nations Security Council, blocking stronger international action. For these nations, strategic and economic interests, as well as a desire to maintain stability on their borders, often outweigh concerns about democracy and human rights. Within the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), of which Myanmar is a member, there is a deep and persistent division. While some members have been critical of the junta, the bloc as a whole has struggled to forge a unified and effective response, hampered by its long-standing principle of non-interference. ASEAN’s ‘Five-Point Consensus,’ a peace plan agreed upon in April 2021, has seen virtually no progress, highlighting the bloc’s limitations in resolving the crisis.

This deep international division has left Myanmar in a state of diplomatic isolation from the West, while it has increasingly turned towards countries like Russia and China for political, military, and economic support. The foreign policy of the National Unity Government (NUG) is focused on gaining international recognition as the legitimate government of Myanmar, advocating for stronger sanctions against the junta, and seeking humanitarian and other forms of assistance for the people of Myanmar. The NUG has established representative offices in a number of countries and is actively engaging with foreign governments, parliaments, and international organizations to build support for its cause. The future of Myanmar’s foreign relations is inextricably linked to the outcome of the ongoing internal conflict. The country’s place in the world and its relationships with its neighbors and with major global powers will be profoundly shaped by whether it returns to a path of democracy or remains under military rule.

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26) Administrative Divisions

The administrative structure of Myanmar is complex, reflecting the country’s diverse ethnic makeup and its long history of centralized rule and regional autonomy struggles. The country is officially divided into a hierarchy of states, regions, union territories, districts, and townships. The primary level of administrative division consists of seven states and seven regions. The regions, which are Ayeyarwady, Bago, Magway, Mandalay, Sagaing, Tanintharyi, and Yangon, are predominantly inhabited by the majority Bamar ethnic group. The states, which are Chin, Kachin, Kayah, Kayin, Mon, Rakhine, and Shan, are home to a number of the country’s major ethnic minorities. This distinction between states and regions is a key feature of the country’s administrative geography and is rooted in the country’s efforts to manage its ethnic diversity. In theory, the states have a greater degree of cultural and political autonomy, although in practice, the level of self-governance has often been limited by the central government.

In addition to the states and regions, there is also one Union Territory, which is centered around the country’s capital, Nay Pyi Taw. The Union Territory is under the direct administration of the President (or, in the current context, the head of the military junta). Below the state and regional level, the country is further subdivided into districts, which are in turn composed of townships. The townships are the basic unit of local administration and are responsible for a range of government services at the local level. The 2008 constitution, which is currently suspended by the military regime, also provided for the creation of Self-Administered Zones and Self-Administered Divisions for certain ethnic groups, such as the Naga, Danu, Pa-O, Palaung, and Kokang. These zones were intended to provide a greater degree of autonomy for these communities within the larger state or regional structures.

The administration of the states and regions is overseen by a Chief Minister and a state or regional government. Prior to the 2021 coup, these officials were appointed by the President. However, in the current political context, the administration of the entire country is under the control of the military’s State Administration Council (SAC). The SAC has appointed its own representatives to govern the states and regions, and the administration at all levels is directed by the military. The long-standing issue of federalism has been at the heart of much of Myanmar’s internal conflict since its independence. Many ethnic groups have been fighting for a genuine federal system that would grant them greater autonomy and control over their own affairs. The future of Myanmar’s administrative structure is therefore a key issue that will need to be addressed in any future political settlement, as the country seeks to build a more inclusive and peaceful union for all its diverse peoples.

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27) Economy & Commodities

The economy of Myanmar is currently in a state of severe crisis, having been crippled by the combined effects of the COVID-19 pandemic and the military coup of February 2021. Prior to these shocks, the country was one of the fastest-growing economies in Southeast Asia, undergoing a period of significant economic liberalization and reform. The transition to a more market-oriented economy had attracted a significant amount of foreign direct investment, particularly in the manufacturing, telecommunications, and energy sectors. However, the coup has brought this progress to a dramatic halt. The political instability, the collapse of the banking system, the withdrawal of many foreign investors, and the widespread civil conflict have led to a sharp contraction of the economy, a surge in inflation, and a dramatic increase in poverty. The country’s economic future is now profoundly uncertain and is dependent on the resolution of the ongoing political crisis.

Myanmar’s economy is fundamentally based on agriculture and natural resources. The agricultural sector is the largest employer in the country, with a majority of the population living in rural areas and depending on farming for their livelihoods. Rice is the most important crop, and Myanmar was once the world’s largest exporter of rice. Other important agricultural products include beans, pulses, sesame, and sugarcane. The country is also rich in natural resources, which have been a major source of export earnings. These include natural gas, which is the country’s most valuable export, as well as jade, gemstones, timber, and various minerals. The exploitation of these resources, however, has often been controversial, with concerns about environmental damage, a lack of transparency, and the benefits not being shared equitably with local communities, particularly in the country’s ethnic states.

The manufacturing sector in Myanmar is relatively underdeveloped but had been growing prior to the coup, particularly in the area of textiles and garments. A number of foreign companies had established factories in the country, taking advantage of low labor costs. The tourism sector also had significant potential for growth, with the country’s rich cultural heritage and its beautiful natural landscapes attracting an increasing number of international visitors. However, both of these sectors have been severely impacted by the current crisis. The country’s main commodities for export are natural gas, agricultural products, jade and gemstones, and garments. Myanmar is a net importer of goods, with its main imports being machinery, petroleum products, and consumer goods. The economic collapse following the coup has had a devastating impact on the people of Myanmar, reversing a decade of progress in poverty reduction and pushing millions into economic hardship.

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28) Science and Technology

The development of science and technology in Myanmar has been severely hampered by decades of political instability, international isolation, and underinvestment. The country’s scientific and technological capacity is at a very early stage of development, and it lags significantly behind its neighbors in the Southeast Asian region. The education system, which is the foundation for any scientific advancement, has been chronically underfunded and has struggled to produce a sufficient number of skilled scientists, engineers, and technicians. The country’s universities and research institutions have limited resources, outdated equipment, and few opportunities for collaboration with the international scientific community. The ‘brain drain’ of talented professionals to other countries has further depleted the nation’s human capital in the fields of science and technology.

During the period of democratic transition in the 2010s, there were some efforts to revitalize the science and technology sector. The opening up of the country led to an expansion of internet access and the growth of the mobile telecommunications industry. This created new opportunities for communication, information sharing, and the development of a nascent digital economy. The government had also developed a science and technology policy that aimed to promote research and development, to improve science education, and to foster innovation. There was a growing interest in applying technology to address the country’s development challenges, such as in the areas of agriculture, healthcare, and disaster management. However, these efforts were still in their early stages and faced significant challenges.

The military coup of February 2021 has been a devastating setback for the development of science and technology in Myanmar. The political and economic crisis has brought most research and development activities to a halt. The education system has been severely disrupted, with many students and teachers participating in the civil disobedience movement and boycotting the military-run education system. The frequent internet shutdowns imposed by the junta have crippled the digital economy and have cut off the country from the global flow of information. The international sanctions and the withdrawal of many foreign partners have further isolated the country’s scientific community. In the current context, the prospects for the development of science and technology in Myanmar are bleak. The country’s ability to harness science and technology for its development will depend on a return to peace, stability, and a government that is committed to investing in education and innovation.

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29) Philosophy

The philosophical landscape of Myanmar is profoundly shaped by the tenets of Theravada Buddhism, which is not merely a religion but a comprehensive worldview and a way of life for the majority of its people. The core of Burmese philosophy is rooted in the teachings of the Buddha, as preserved in the Pali Canon. This includes the fundamental concepts of the Four Noble Truths, which diagnose the nature of suffering (Dukkha) and offer a path to its cessation, and the Eightfold Path, which provides a practical guide to ethical conduct, mental discipline, and wisdom. The concepts of ‘Anicca’ (impermanence), ‘Dukkha’ (suffering or unsatisfactoriness), and ‘Anatta’ (no-self) are central to the Burmese understanding of reality. These teachings encourage a detachment from worldly desires and a focus on cultivating inner peace and wisdom through practices such as meditation (Vipassanā) and the observance of moral precepts (Sīla).

This Buddhist philosophy permeates all aspects of Burmese culture and society. It is reflected in the country’s art and architecture, most spectacularly in the thousands of pagodas and temples that dot the landscape. It shapes social values, emphasizing humility, generosity, and respect for elders, monks, and teachers. The concept of ‘Kamma’ (Karma), the law of cause and effect, is a powerful moral force, influencing how people think about their actions and their consequences in this life and in future lives. The practice of making merit, or ‘Kutho,’ by performing good deeds such as giving alms to monks, building pagodas, or supporting the community, is a central part of daily life and is seen as a way to ensure a favorable rebirth and to progress on the path to enlightenment (Nibbana). The monastic community, or ‘Sangha,’ plays a vital role as the custodians of these philosophical teachings and as the spiritual guides for the lay community.

In addition to the dominant influence of Buddhism, Burmese philosophy has also been shaped by other intellectual and spiritual traditions. The pre-Buddhist animist beliefs in spirits, known as ‘Nats,’ continue to be a significant part of the country’s spiritual life, often coexisting and blending with Buddhist practices. These beliefs reflect a deep connection to the natural world and a reverence for the spirits that are believed to inhabit it. The long period of British colonial rule introduced Western philosophical ideas, particularly in the fields of political and legal thought. In the post-independence era, the country’s political leaders have attempted to blend Buddhist principles with socialist and nationalist ideologies. In the contemporary period, the struggle for democracy and human rights has also given rise to a powerful political philosophy, articulated by figures like Aung San Suu Kyi, which seeks to reconcile Buddhist values with the principles of modern democratic governance. The philosophical tradition of Myanmar is therefore a rich and dynamic one, constantly evolving as it grapples with the timeless questions of human existence and the specific challenges of its own unique history.

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30) Cultural Etiquette

Understanding and respecting the cultural etiquette of Myanmar is essential for any visitor wishing to have a positive and respectful interaction with its people. Burmese culture is deeply influenced by Theravada Buddhism, and its values of politeness, humility, and respect are central to social interactions. One of the most important aspects of Burmese etiquette is the concept of ‘Ana,’ which is a complex notion that involves a reluctance to cause inconvenience or to impose on others. This can sometimes be misinterpreted as shyness or a lack of directness. It is important to be patient and to be sensitive to non-verbal cues. A calm and gentle demeanor is always appreciated, and showing anger or raising your voice in public is considered very poor form and can cause a loss of face for both you and the person you are interacting with. Greetings are usually accompanied by a warm smile and a slight bow of the head. The traditional greeting is to place your hands together in a prayer-like gesture, but a handshake is also common, particularly for men.

Respect for elders is a cornerstone of Burmese culture. The elderly are always treated with great deference, and it is important to show them respect in your words and actions. When speaking to an elder, it is polite to use honorific titles. It is also considered rude to sit higher than an elder or a monk. The head is considered the most sacred part of the body, and it is considered very offensive to touch someone’s head, even a child’s. The feet, on the other hand, are considered the lowest and most unclean part of the body. It is important to avoid pointing your feet at someone or at a religious image. When sitting on the floor, you should tuck your feet underneath you or point them away from others. When visiting a pagoda or a monastery, it is essential to dress modestly. This means wearing clothing that covers your shoulders and knees. You will also be required to remove your shoes and socks before entering any religious site. It is a good idea to carry a bag with you to store your shoes while you are inside.

Hospitality is a cherished value in Myanmar, and guests are often treated with great generosity. If you are invited to a Burmese home, it is a great honor. It is customary to bring a small gift for the host. When dining, it is polite to wait for the host to start eating before you do. It is also considered good manners to leave a small amount of food on your plate at the end of the meal to show that you have been well-fed. When giving or receiving something, it is polite to use your right hand or both hands, as the left hand is traditionally used for personal hygiene. By being mindful of these cultural norms, visitors can show respect for the Burmese people and their traditions, which will be greatly appreciated and will lead to a more authentic and rewarding travel experience. However, it is crucial to remember the current political situation and to be extremely cautious and sensitive in all interactions.

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31) Sports and Recreation

Sports and recreation in Myanmar are a rich blend of traditional games that reflect the country’s cultural heritage and modern sports that have been adopted and embraced with great passion. The most popular modern sport in the country is undoubtedly football (soccer). The sport is followed with immense enthusiasm by people of all ages, from children playing in the streets to large crowds cheering on their favorite teams in the national league. The Myanmar National League is the top tier of professional football, and the national team, known as the ‘Chinthe,’ has a dedicated following. The country has a proud football history, having been one of the top teams in Asia in the 1960s and 70s. While its international success has waned in recent years, the love for the beautiful game remains deeply ingrained in the national psyche.

One of the most unique and iconic traditional sports in Myanmar is ‘Chinlone,’ a non-competitive game that combines elements of sport and dance. In Chinlone, a team of players works together to keep a small, woven rattan ball in the air without using their hands. The focus is not on winning or losing but on the beauty and creativity of the players’ movements as they use their feet, knees, and heads to control the ball. It is a graceful and mesmerizing sport that requires great skill and teamwork. Another popular traditional sport is ‘Lethwei,’ or Burmese bare-knuckle boxing. This is a highly aggressive and full-contact martial art that is known for its use of stand-up striking, including headbutts. Lethwei is considered one of the most brutal martial arts in the world and is a thrilling and intense spectator sport.

In addition to these sports, a number of other recreational activities are also popular in Myanmar. The country’s many rivers and lakes offer opportunities for boat racing, which is a popular and festive event, particularly during religious festivals. The game of chess, known as ‘Sittuyin,’ is a traditional form of Burmese chess that has its own unique rules and pieces. In the rural areas, traditional games are still played by children and adults alike. The country’s diverse and beautiful landscapes also offer a range of opportunities for outdoor recreation, such as hiking and trekking in the Shan Hills or enjoying the beaches of the Andaman coast. However, it is important to note that the current political situation has severely impacted all aspects of life in Myanmar, including sports and recreation, with many activities being suspended or curtailed.

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32) Environmental Concerns

Myanmar, a country of immense biodiversity and rich natural resources, faces a number of severe and escalating environmental challenges that threaten its ecosystems, its economy, and the well-being of its people. One of the most pressing issues is deforestation. Myanmar has one of the highest rates of deforestation in the world, driven by a combination of factors including illegal logging, the expansion of agriculture, and the development of infrastructure projects. The country’s valuable forests, which are home to a wide range of endangered species, including tigers, elephants, and pangolins, are being cleared at an alarming rate. The illegal timber trade, particularly of teak and other hardwoods, is a major driver of this destruction. The loss of forests has a devastating impact on biodiversity, contributes to soil erosion and landslides, and disrupts the water cycle, affecting the livelihoods of the many communities that depend on the forests.

The exploitation of the country’s other natural resources is also a major source of environmental concern. The mining industry, particularly the mining of jade and other gemstones in the northern state of Kachin, is notorious for its destructive practices. Large-scale mining operations have led to the creation of vast, unstable waste heaps, which have resulted in a number of deadly landslides. The mining industry is also associated with widespread water and soil pollution from the use of chemicals. The development of the country’s hydropower potential has also been controversial, with a number of large dam projects on major rivers like the Irrawaddy and the Salween raising concerns about their impact on river ecosystems, fish migration, and the livelihoods of the communities that depend on the rivers.

Climate change is another significant threat to Myanmar. The country is considered one of the most vulnerable in the world to the impacts of climate change. It is at high risk from an increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, such as cyclones, floods, and droughts. The low-lying delta region, which is the country’s main rice-growing area, is particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise and saltwater intrusion. The political instability and the ongoing conflict following the 2021 military coup have exacerbated these environmental challenges. The breakdown of governance and the rule of law has led to an increase in illegal resource extraction and has made it almost impossible to implement effective environmental protection and conservation measures. The future of Myanmar’s precious natural environment is therefore inextricably linked to the resolution of the country’s deep and ongoing political crisis.

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33) Marriage & Courtship

Marriage and courtship in Myanmar are a fascinating blend of traditional customs, astrological beliefs, and modern influences. The process is deeply rooted in family values and social harmony, with the approval of parents and elders being a crucial element. Traditionally, arranged marriages were common, and while this practice has become less prevalent, especially in urban areas, family involvement remains significant. Courtship is often a discreet and gentle affair. Public displays of affection are generally frowned upon. A young man interested in a woman may express his interest through a go-between or by making polite and respectful visits to her home. These visits are a way for the couple to get to know each other under the watchful eyes of their families and for the families to assess the suitability of the potential match.

Astrology plays a surprisingly important role in the journey to marriage. It is common for families to consult an astrologer to determine the compatibility of the couple based on their horoscopes, which are determined by the day of the week they were born. The astrologer will also be consulted to choose an auspicious date and time for the wedding ceremony. The wedding itself is a joyous and significant event. The formal ceremony often takes place in the bride’s home and involves a number of beautiful and symbolic rituals. The hands of the bride and groom are tied together with a white cloth, and water is poured over them to bless the union. The couple will also exchange vows and offer alms to monks to gain merit for their new life together. The ceremony is followed by a large reception, where friends and family gather to celebrate with a feast of delicious Burmese food. The wedding is not just a union of two individuals but a celebration of the coming together of two families, and it is a vibrant and colorful expression of Burmese culture and tradition.

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34) Work Opportunities

The landscape of work opportunities in Myanmar is currently in a state of severe crisis, fundamentally altered by the military coup of February 2021 and the ensuing political and economic turmoil. Prior to the coup, the country was experiencing a period of cautious optimism, with economic reforms opening up new avenues for employment. The formal sector was growing, driven by foreign direct investment in the manufacturing and services sectors, and there was a sense of expanding possibilities for the workforce. However, the coup has reversed this progress and plunged the labor market into chaos. The political instability, the collapse of the banking system, widespread civil conflict, and the withdrawal of many foreign companies have led to massive job losses across all sectors of the economy. The security situation and the breakdown of the rule of law have made it extremely difficult for businesses to operate, and the overall economic contraction has had a devastating impact on employment.

In the pre-coup era, the agricultural sector was the largest employer in Myanmar, with a majority of the population engaged in farming, fishing, and forestry. This sector, while vital for subsistence, was characterized by low productivity and low wages. The industrial sector, particularly the garment and textile industry, had become a significant source of formal employment, especially for young women. The construction industry was also booming, driven by urbanization and infrastructure development. The services sector, including retail, hospitality, and telecommunications, was expanding rapidly, creating a new range of jobs in the urban centers. The tourism industry, in particular, was seen as a major potential growth area, with the country’s rich cultural heritage and natural beauty attracting an increasing number of international visitors.

In the current context, the work opportunities have shrunk dramatically. The formal sector has been decimated, with many factories, businesses, and tourism-related enterprises shutting down. The public sector has also been severely impacted, with a large number of civil servants participating in the Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM) and being dismissed or arrested by the junta. Many people have been forced to return to the informal economy and to subsistence agriculture to survive. For foreigners, the opportunities for work in Myanmar have become extremely limited. Most international companies and non-governmental organizations have either suspended their operations or have significantly scaled back their presence in the country. The security risks and the ethical considerations of working under a military regime have made Myanmar an unviable location for most expatriate workers. The future of the labor market in Myanmar is profoundly uncertain and is dependent on a resolution to the deep and ongoing political crisis.

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35) Education

The education system in Myanmar has been thrown into a state of profound crisis by the military coup of February 2021, undoing years of slow and painstaking reforms. The country’s education system has long been challenged by decades of underinvestment and centralized control under previous military regimes. The system was characterized by rote learning, outdated curricula, and a lack of critical thinking skills. During the period of democratic transition from 2011 to 2021, there were significant efforts to reform the education sector, with the support of international partners. These reforms aimed to improve the quality of teaching, to update the curriculum, to increase access to education, and to promote a more student-centered approach to learning. The goal was to build an education system that could equip the young people of Myanmar with the skills and knowledge they need to participate in a modern, democratic society.

The structure of the education system is based on a system of basic education, which covers primary, middle, and high school, followed by higher education. Basic education is compulsory for nine years. The language of instruction is Burmese, which has been a point of contention for the country’s many ethnic minorities, who have long advocated for the right to teach in their own languages. The higher education sector is composed of a number of universities and colleges, which are mostly specialized in fields such as arts and sciences, engineering, medicine, and agriculture. The quality of higher education has been a major concern, with limited academic freedom and a lack of resources for research and development.

The 2021 coup has had a devastating impact on the education system. A large number of teachers and students have joined the Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM), boycotting the military-run education system as a form of resistance. This has led to the closure of many schools and universities and has left millions of children without access to education. The junta has responded by arresting and dismissing striking teachers and by attempting to force schools to reopen under its control. A number of parallel, informal education initiatives have been set up by communities and by the National Unity Government (NUG), but these face immense challenges in terms of resources and security. The crisis in the education sector is not just a temporary disruption; it is a long-term disaster that will have a profound and lasting impact on a whole generation of young people in Myanmar.

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36) Communication & Connectivity

Communication and connectivity in Myanmar have been a key battleground in the political and social turmoil that has engulfed the country since the military coup of February 2021. In the decade prior to the coup, the country had experienced a telecommunications revolution. From being one of the least connected countries in the world, Myanmar had seen a massive expansion of mobile phone and internet access. The liberalization of the telecommunications market had led to the entry of international operators, which resulted in a dramatic drop in the cost of SIM cards and mobile data. The smartphone became ubiquitous, connecting millions of people to the internet for the first time and opening up a new world of information, communication, and social interaction. This new connectivity played a crucial role in the country’s economic development and in the strengthening of its civil society.

However, the military junta has systematically dismantled this new era of digital freedom, using its control over the telecommunications infrastructure as a tool of repression. Following the coup, the military imposed frequent and prolonged internet shutdowns, cutting off the flow of information and disrupting the ability of the resistance movement to organize. Mobile data access has been severely restricted, and the junta has ordered the registration of mobile phone users with their personal details, creating a climate of fear and surveillance. The military has also blocked access to social media platforms like Facebook, which was a primary source of news and information for a large portion of the population. A number of draconian new laws have been proposed that would give the authorities sweeping powers to censor online content and to prosecute dissent.

The media landscape in Myanmar has also been devastated by the coup. The junta has revoked the licenses of numerous independent media outlets and has arrested and imprisoned hundreds of journalists. The space for free and independent journalism has been all but extinguished, and the media is now dominated by state-controlled propaganda. A number of exiled and underground media outlets continue to operate, providing a vital source of independent news and information, but they do so at great risk. The struggle for communication and connectivity in Myanmar is therefore a struggle for the very soul of the country. It is a battle between a military regime that seeks to control the narrative and to plunge the country back into isolation and a people who are determined to stay connected with each other and with the outside world in their fight for freedom and democracy.

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37) National Symbols

The national symbols of Myanmar are a rich and complex tapestry, reflecting the country’s diverse culture, its deep-rooted Buddhist faith, and its tumultuous political history. The national flag has been a particularly potent and contested symbol. The current flag, adopted in 2010, consists of three horizontal stripes of yellow, green, and red, with a large white, five-pointed star in the center. The yellow represents solidarity, the green symbolizes peace and tranquility, and the red signifies courage and determination. The white star represents the significance of the union of the country. This flag replaced an earlier one used during the previous period of military rule and is closely associated with the 2008 constitution. The pre-2010 flag, which featured a red field with a blue canton, is now often used by those who oppose the current military regime.

The state seal of Myanmar is another important national emblem. The current seal features a map of Myanmar in the center, surrounded by two mythical lions, or ‘Chinthe,’ which are traditional guardians of temples and pagodas. The seal also contains olive wreaths, a symbol of peace, and the name of the country written in Burmese. The Chinthe itself is a powerful cultural symbol, often seen at the entrance to Buddhist temples, and represents the country’s deep connection to its religious heritage. The national anthem, ‘Kaba Ma Kyei’ (Till the End of the World), is a patriotic song that was adopted in 1948, the year of the country’s independence. The lyrics are a call for unity, love for the nation, and a commitment to preserving its independence.

The flora and fauna of Myanmar are also an important part of its national identity. The Padauk flower, which blossoms with the first rains of the monsoon season, is considered the national flower and is a symbol of love, youth, and romance. The Green Peafowl is the national bird, a beautiful and graceful creature that is native to the country’s forests. The Indochinese tiger, while critically endangered, is a powerful symbol of the country’s rich biodiversity and the need for conservation. The white elephant is another important cultural symbol, traditionally associated with royalty and good fortune. These symbols, both official and cultural, are a constant reminder of the unique character and spirit of Myanmar, a country of incredible beauty and resilience, currently facing one of the darkest chapters in its history.

National & Cultural Symbols of Myanmar

Symbol Type	Symbol Name / Example
National Flag	Yellow, green, and red horizontal stripes with a white star
State Seal	Two Chinthe (mythical lions) flanking a map of Myanmar
National Anthem	Kaba Ma Kyei (Till the End of the World)
National Animal (Fauna)	Indochinese Tiger
National Bird (Fauna)	Green Peafowl
National Flower (Flora)	Padauk (Pterocarpus indicus)
Cultural Symbol	Chinthe (Mythical Lion)
Cultural Symbol	White Elephant (symbol of royalty and prosperity)
Traditional Sport	Chinlone
Historic Site	Shwedagon Pagoda, Ancient City of Bagan

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38) Tourism

Myanmar, the ‘Golden Land,’ is a country of breathtaking beauty and profound cultural richness, which had been emerging as one of Southeast Asia’s most alluring travel destinations. Its appeal lies in its stunning diversity, from the thousands of ancient temples that dot the plains of Bagan to the serene and mystical waters of Inle Lake. The country is home to a wealth of historical and religious sites, including the magnificent Shwedagon Pagoda in Yangon, a gleaming golden stupa that is one of Buddhism’s most sacred sites. A visit to Myanmar offered a chance to step back in time, to experience a way of life that had been largely untouched by modernity, and to connect with a people known for their warmth, gentleness, and deep spirituality. The country’s tourism sector was growing rapidly, with an increasing number of hotels, guesthouses, and tour operators catering to international visitors. It offered a wide range of experiences, from luxury river cruises on the Irrawaddy to adventurous treks in the Shan Hills.

However, it is crucial to state that the tourism industry in Myanmar has completely collapsed following the military coup of February 2021. The country is currently in a state of civil war, and it is not safe to travel there. Many foreign governments have issued strong travel advisories, warning their citizens against all travel to Myanmar due to the high risk of arbitrary detention, violence, and civil unrest. The military junta has a long and well-documented history of gross human rights violations, and any money spent in the country is likely to support the regime. A number of ethical tourism campaigns have called for a boycott of travel to Myanmar until democracy is restored. The information in this travel guide should therefore be considered as a reflection of what Myanmar was and what it may one day be again, rather than as a guide for travel in the current context. When it is safe and ethical to travel to Myanmar again, visitors will discover a land of incredible wonder, but for now, the country remains closed to the world, its people locked in a struggle for their freedom.

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39) Visa and Entry Requirements

It is critically important to understand that due to the military coup of February 2021 and the subsequent political instability and civil conflict, travel to Myanmar is strongly discouraged by most foreign governments. The country is in a state of profound crisis, and the security situation is volatile and dangerous. Many countries have issued ‘Do Not Travel’ advisories for Myanmar. The information provided here on visa and entry requirements reflects the policies that were in place before the coup and the current limited services offered by the military junta. However, these policies can change without notice, and the issuance of visas is not guaranteed. Anyone considering travel to Myanmar for any reason must first consult the latest travel advisories from their own government and understand the extreme risks involved.

Prior to the coup, Myanmar had a relatively straightforward visa policy for tourists and business travelers. Most foreign nationals were required to obtain a visa before traveling to the country. The most common way to do this was through the e-visa system, which was introduced in 2014. The e-visa allowed travelers from a large number of countries to apply for a tourist or business visa online. The application process was relatively simple and required the submission of a digital photograph and a scanned copy of the passport. Once approved, the e-visa was sent to the applicant via email and had to be presented upon arrival at one of the designated international airports. In addition to the e-visa, visas could also be obtained from a Myanmar embassy or consulate abroad. Some nationalities were eligible for a visa on arrival, but this was a less common option.

Currently, the military junta continues to operate the e-visa system, but the service is unreliable, and there is no guarantee that a visa will be granted. The junta has also suspended visa-free travel arrangements that were in place with some countries. All travelers must have a passport that is valid for at least six months from the date of entry. Proof of onward or return travel and proof of sufficient funds may also be required. It is also important to be aware that the junta has imposed strict curfews and other security measures in many parts of the country, and that the risk of being caught up in violence or being arbitrarily arrested is very high. Given the current situation, attempting to travel to Myanmar for tourism is not only dangerous but also ethically questionable, as it may be seen as legitimizing and financially supporting the military regime. It is imperative to prioritize personal safety and to heed the advice of your government’s travel advisories.

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40) Useful Resources

Given the severe political crisis and the dangerous security situation in Myanmar following the February 2021 military coup, it is of the utmost importance to consult official government travel advisories before even considering any travel to the country. Most governments strongly advise against all travel to Myanmar.

Official Government Travel Advisories:

• U.S. Department of State – Burma (Myanmar) Travel Advisory
• UK Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office – Myanmar Travel Advice
• Government of Canada – Myanmar Travel Advice
• Australian Government – Smartraveller Myanmar

Visa Information (Note: Services are controlled by the military junta and are unreliable):

• The official e-visa website operated by the military regime. (Prospective travelers should be aware of the security and ethical implications of using this service).

Human Rights and News Organizations:

To understand the current situation on the ground, it is crucial to consult independent news sources and human rights organizations rather than state-controlled media.

• Human Rights Watch – Myanmar
• Amnesty International – Myanmar
• The Irrawaddy (Independent News)
• Frontier Myanmar (Independent News)

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