🇸🇩 Comprehensive Guide to Sudan

21) Brief History

The history of Sudan is a profound and ancient story, deeply intertwined with the lifeblood of the Nile River. This land, historically known as Nubia, was the cradle of some of Africa’s earliest and most sophisticated civilizations. The Kingdom of Kush, with its capitals at Kerma and later Napata and Meroë, rose as a major regional power as early as 2500 BCE. The Kushite pharaohs, known as the “Black Pharaohs,” were so powerful that they conquered and ruled all of Egypt as its 25th Dynasty. The legacy of this era is breathtaking, most visibly in the hundreds of steep-sided pyramids that dot the desert landscape around Meroë, a UNESCO World Heritage site that stands as a testament to a rich culture with its own unique script, advanced iron-working technology, and complex political structure. For over a millennium, these Nubian kingdoms thrived on trade, connecting sub-Saharan Africa with the Mediterranean world, before a gradual decline led to their fragmentation into smaller Christian kingdoms by the 6th century AD.

The arrival of Islam in the 7th century began a slow but profound transformation of the region’s cultural and religious landscape. Through centuries of trade, intermarriage, and the influence of Arab migrants and Sufi mystics, Islam gradually became the dominant faith, particularly in the north. This period saw the rise of various sultanates, such as the Funj Sultanate of Sennar, which controlled a large territory for several centuries. A pivotal chapter in modern Sudanese history began in the 1820s with the conquest by the Ottoman ruler of Egypt, Muhammad Ali. This Turco-Egyptian rule was deeply unpopular and eventually sparked a major nationalist and religious uprising. In 1881, a charismatic cleric named Muhammad Ahmad proclaimed himself the Mahdi (“the guided one”) and led a successful revolt, establishing the Mahdist State. This independent state briefly ruled Sudan before being defeated by Anglo-Egyptian forces in 1898, ushering in the era of the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium.

Sudan gained its independence in 1956, but the post-colonial period has been marked by profound challenges and prolonged conflict. Deep-seated divisions between the predominantly Arab and Muslim north and the largely African Christian and animist south, exacerbated by colonial policies, led to two devastating civil wars that spanned most of the next half-century. In 1989, Colonel Omar al-Bashir seized power in a military coup, imposing a strict interpretation of Islamic law and ruling for three decades. His tenure was defined by internal conflicts, most notably in Darfur, and international isolation. A massive popular uprising in 2019 led to al-Bashir’s ouster and the establishment of a transitional government, inspiring hope for a democratic future. However, this hope was shattered by a military coup in 2021 and the subsequent outbreak of a devastating war in April 2023 between the Sudanese Armed Forces and the Rapid Support Forces, plunging the nation into a severe humanitarian crisis and an uncertain future.

22) Geography

Sudan is a vast country located in Northeast Africa, possessing a diverse geography that transitions dramatically from the harsh deserts of the north to the semi-arid savanna in its central belt. Covering an area of over 1.8 million square kilometers, it is one of the largest countries on the continent. The defining geographical feature of Sudan is the Nile River, which flows through the entire length of the country from south to north. The nation’s life and history are inextricably linked to this mighty river system. In the capital, Khartoum, the two main tributaries, the Blue Nile originating from Ethiopia’s highlands and the White Nile flowing from the Great Lakes region of Central Africa, merge in a spectacular confluence known as ‘al-Mogran’. From this point, the unified Nile continues its journey northward through the desert, providing a narrow, fertile ribbon of life that supports the majority of the country’s population and agriculture before crossing into Egypt.

The northern half of Sudan is dominated by the vast expanse of the Nubian Desert, a component of the greater Sahara. This region is characterized by rocky plains, shifting sand dunes (*ergs*), and an extremely arid climate with virtually no rainfall. This stark landscape is punctuated only by the Nile Valley and a few scattered oases. To the east, the Red Sea Hills run parallel to the country’s 853-kilometer coastline, creating a rugged barrier between the Nile Valley and the sea. The Red Sea coast itself offers a contrasting environment, with potential for marine biodiversity and historically important port cities like Port Sudan. Moving south from the desert heartland, the landscape gradually gives way to the Sahelian belt, a semi-arid region of acacia scrubland and grasslands known as the *qoz*, which receives seasonal rainfall and supports pastoralism and cultivation of crops like sorghum and millet.

Central and southern Sudan feature more varied topography. In the far west, the Darfur region is dominated by the Marrah Mountains, a volcanic massif that rises to over 3,000 meters and represents the highest point in the country. This mountainous area has a more temperate climate and greater rainfall than the surrounding plains, creating a unique ecosystem. The Nuba Mountains in the South Kordofan state also form a distinct and culturally significant highland region. Historically, the southern part of the country, before the secession of South Sudan, extended into more tropical, humid climes with extensive swamps and rainforests. Today, the southern reaches of Sudan are characterized by clay plains and savanna woodlands, which support a wider variety of wildlife and agricultural practices than the arid north. This geographical diversity has fostered a wide range of lifestyles, from the settled farmers of the Nile to the nomadic pastoralists of the Sahel and western plains.

23) Politics and Government

The political and governmental landscape of Sudan is currently in a state of profound crisis and collapse due to the ongoing armed conflict that erupted in April 2023. Prior to this devastation, the country was navigating a fragile and contentious transition towards democracy following the overthrow of long-time ruler Omar al-Bashir in 2019. After a popular revolution, a power-sharing agreement was established between the military and civilian political forces, creating a Transitional Sovereignty Council. This council, composed of both military and civilian members, was intended to govern for a 39-month period, culminating in free and fair elections. The executive branch was led by a Prime Minister, appointed by the civilian coalition, who headed a cabinet of ministers. The ultimate goal was to dismantle the deep state created during three decades of authoritarian rule and build new, democratic institutions.

This transitional arrangement, however, was fraught with tension and mistrust from the beginning. The military, led by General Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, head of the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF), and the powerful paramilitary leader General Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo, known as “Hemedti,” head of the Rapid Support Forces (RSF), held significant power. In October 2021, the military dissolved the transitional government in a coup, derailing the democratic transition and arresting civilian leaders. This move was met with widespread domestic condemnation and mass protests, as well as international pressure. A new framework agreement was eventually negotiated in late 2022, aiming to restore a civilian-led transition, but it failed to resolve the fundamental power struggle between the SAF and the RSF, the two main security forces in the country.

This simmering rivalry exploded into open warfare in April 2023. The conflict between the SAF and the RSF quickly engulfed the capital, Khartoum, and spread to other parts of the country, particularly the Darfur region. Since then, the formal structures of government have effectively ceased to function in many areas. The country is fragmented, with different territories controlled by the warring factions. There is no functioning legislature, and the rule of law has been replaced by the rule of the gun. The state has failed in its most basic function of providing security to its citizens, leading to a catastrophic humanitarian crisis, mass displacement, and widespread atrocities. International and regional efforts to mediate a ceasefire and restore a political process have so far been unsuccessful, leaving the future of governance in Sudan dangerously uncertain.

24) Law and Criminal Justice

The legal system of Sudan is, in principle, a mixed system that draws from multiple sources, primarily English common law and Islamic Sharia law. This hybrid nature is a direct consequence of the country’s history. The period of Anglo-Egyptian rule (1899-1956) introduced a legal framework based on the common law tradition, including a penal code and a code of criminal procedure modeled on the Indian Penal Code, which itself was based on English law. This system established a secular judiciary and legal principles such as precedent and an adversarial trial process. For decades after independence, this common law framework remained largely intact, governing most civil and criminal matters throughout the country.

This legal landscape began to change dramatically following the 1983 introduction of the “September Laws” by then-President Gaafar Nimeiry, which sought to implement a strict interpretation of Sharia law across the entire country. This was further entrenched after the 1989 coup that brought Omar al-Bashir to power. A new Sharia-based Criminal Act was introduced in 1991, which included *hudud* punishments (such as amputation and flogging) for certain offenses, although their application varied and was often a subject of international criticism. The system officially operated on a dual basis, where Sharia was the primary source of legislation, but common law principles continued to influence court procedures and commercial law. The interim constitution following the 2005 peace agreement and the 2019 transitional constitutional charter attempted to provide for a more pluralistic legal framework, respecting the country’s religious and cultural diversity, but the full implementation of these reforms was never realized.

In the current context of the devastating conflict that began in April 2023, the formal legal and criminal justice system has effectively collapsed in large parts of Sudan, particularly in Khartoum and the Darfur region. The judiciary is unable to operate, police stations have been looted, and prisons have been opened, leading to a complete breakdown of the rule of law. Justice, where it exists, is often administered arbitrarily by the commanders of the warring factions, the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) and the Rapid Support Forces (RSF). Widespread human rights abuses, including extrajudicial killings, torture, and sexual violence, are being committed with total impunity. Restoring a functioning, fair, and accessible criminal justice system will be one of the most significant and difficult challenges in any post-conflict recovery and reconstruction effort for Sudan.

25) Foreign Relations

Sudan’s foreign relations have historically been complex and volatile, shaped by its strategic location at the crossroads of Africa and the Middle East, its internal conflicts, and its shifting political ideologies. For much of the three decades under the rule of Omar al-Bashir, Sudan was largely isolated internationally. The government was designated a state sponsor of terrorism by the United States, faced international sanctions, and had strained relationships with many of its neighbors and Western powers due to its support for Islamist groups and its human rights record, particularly the conflict in Darfur which led to an indictment of al-Bashir by the International Criminal Court (ICC). During this period, Sudan cultivated relationships with countries like China, which was a major investor in its oil sector, and Russia, while maintaining complicated but essential ties with the Arab world, particularly Gulf states like Saudi Arabia and the UAE.

The 2019 revolution that overthrew al-Bashir marked a pivotal moment, heralding a new era for Sudanese foreign policy. The transitional government made a concerted effort to reintegrate Sudan into the international community. This included being removed from the U.S. list of state sponsors of terrorism, normalizing relations with international financial institutions like the World Bank and IMF to seek debt relief, and taking steps to join the World Trade Organization. A significant and controversial foreign policy move during this transition was the agreement to normalize relations with Israel as part of the Abraham Accords. The transitional government aimed to balance its relationships, fostering closer ties with Western democracies while maintaining its long-standing partnerships with China, Russia, and its Arab neighbors, all of whom were seen as crucial for the country’s economic recovery.

The outbreak of war in April 2023 between the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) and the Rapid Support Forces (RSF) has dramatically and tragically reshaped Sudan’s foreign relations. The conflict has turned the country into an arena for regional and international power competition. Regional powers have taken different sides, with Egypt historically backing the SAF, while the UAE has been accused of supporting the RSF. This has created a complex proxy dynamic that fuels the conflict. International actors, including the United States, Saudi Arabia, and regional bodies like the African Union and IGAD, have attempted to mediate a lasting ceasefire, but with limited success. The focus of the international community has shifted from supporting a democratic transition to addressing the catastrophic humanitarian crisis and preventing further regional destabilization. The war has shattered the progress made after 2019, leaving Sudan’s foreign policy fragmented and its future dependent on the outcome of the internal power struggle.

26) Administrative Divisions

The Republic of Sudan is federally structured and divided into eighteen states, or *wilayat* in Arabic. This system of state-level administration was established to manage the vast and diverse territory of the country, delegating a degree of authority from the central government in Khartoum to local regions. These states serve as the primary administrative units, each headed by a governor (*Wali*) who, prior to the current conflict, was appointed by the President. Each state has its own legislative council and a cabinet of ministers responsible for overseeing local matters such as state-level infrastructure, public health, local security, and primary education. The 18 states are: Khartoum, North Kordofan, Northern, Kassala, Blue Nile, White Nile, Gezira, Gedaref, Sennar, Red Sea, River Nile, South Darfur, West Darfur, North Darfur, Central Darfur, East Darfur, South Kordofan, and West Kordofan.

The states themselves are further subdivided into a total of 133 districts, which function as the second tier of administration. These districts are responsible for the more immediate and localized aspects of governance and service delivery within their specific geographic areas. This structure is intended to make state administration more manageable and responsive to the needs of local communities. However, the effectiveness and autonomy of these state and district administrations have often been limited by the highly centralized nature of power in Khartoum, where major decisions regarding budget allocation and political appointments have traditionally been made. The relationship between the central government and the states, particularly in peripheral regions, has historically been a source of tension and conflict.

It is crucial to understand that the formal administrative structure has been completely fractured by the ongoing war that began in April 2023. The central government’s control is contested, and many state capitals have become major battlegrounds. The Darfur region, which is divided into five states, has seen a catastrophic resurgence of violence, with the Rapid Support Forces (RSF) controlling most of the territory. De facto control of many districts and even entire states is now in the hands of the warring factions, not the appointed governors. The formal administrative map of Sudan currently bears little resemblance to the reality of territorial control on the ground, which is fluid and violently contested. The war has not only caused a humanitarian crisis but has also led to a complete breakdown of state administration and public services in vast swathes of the country.

27) Economy & Commodities

The economy of Sudan, historically rooted in agriculture and more recently in oil, is currently in a state of complete collapse due to the devastating conflict that started in April 2023. Prior to the war, Sudan was classified as a low-income developing country facing immense structural challenges, including high inflation, significant foreign debt, and the economic shock of South Sudan’s secession in 2011, which took with it about 75% of the country’s oil reserves. The agricultural sector has traditionally been the backbone of the economy, employing the vast majority of the workforce and accounting for a significant portion of the GDP. The fertile lands along the Nile River and in the Gezira Scheme, one of the world’s largest irrigation projects, have historically produced crops like cotton, sugarcane, wheat, and sorghum.

Beyond the Nile Valley, Sudan is a world-leading producer of several key commodities. It is the global leader in the production and export of gum arabic, a natural gum harvested from acacia trees that is a crucial ingredient in the food, beverage, and pharmaceutical industries. Other significant agricultural commodities include sesame seeds, peanuts, and livestock, which are major exports to the Middle East. After the loss of most of its oil fields, gold mining became a critical source of foreign currency. A large portion of the mining is artisanal and informal, creating challenges for regulation and revenue collection but providing a livelihood for many. The country’s industrial sector has remained underdeveloped, focused primarily on food processing, textiles, and other light manufacturing for the domestic market.

The 2023 conflict has shattered an already fragile economy. The fighting has destroyed critical infrastructure, including factories, banks, and markets, particularly in the economic heartland of Khartoum. Agricultural production has been severely disrupted as farmers have been displaced and supply chains have broken down, leading to soaring food prices and a severe food security crisis. The banking system is largely non-functional, trade has been paralyzed, and government revenues have plummeted. Hyperinflation has rendered the currency almost worthless. The economic devastation is profound, pushing millions into poverty and creating a humanitarian catastrophe. Any future recovery will require not only a lasting peace but also a massive international effort to rebuild infrastructure, restore basic services, and stabilize the macroeconomic environment.

28) Science and Technology

Sudan’s heritage in science and technology stretches back to antiquity. The ancient Nubian civilizations, particularly during the Kerma and Meroitic periods, demonstrated remarkable ingenuity. Archaeological evidence reveals advanced knowledge of metallurgy, with the city of Meroë being one of the most important iron-working centers in the ancient world. The construction of their sophisticated temples and steep-sided pyramids showcases advanced engineering and astronomical alignment. This legacy of knowledge, however, faced long periods of stagnation due to centuries of external rule and internal strife. In the modern era, the foundation for science and technology was laid during the Anglo-Egyptian period with the establishment of institutions like Gordon Memorial College, which would later become the University of Khartoum, and the Stack Medical Research Laboratories.

In the post-independence period, Sudan made efforts to build its scientific and technological capacity, primarily through its university system. The University of Khartoum became a respected regional center for higher education, particularly in fields like medicine, agriculture, and engineering. Other universities and national research centers, such as the National Centre for Research, were established to address local challenges. Research focused on areas of national importance, such as tropical medicine, developing drought-resistant crops, managing water resources from the Nile, and veterinary sciences. Despite these efforts, the sector has been chronically hampered by a lack of funding, political instability, and a significant “brain drain” of talented scientists and engineers seeking better opportunities abroad.

The current conflict that began in April 2023 has dealt a catastrophic blow to the already fragile science and technology ecosystem in Sudan. Universities and research centers, especially in Khartoum, have been looted, damaged, or destroyed. Many have become battlegrounds or shelters for the displaced. The academic community has been scattered, with many scholars and students becoming refugees either internally or abroad. The communication and technology infrastructure has been severely damaged, making research and collaboration nearly impossible. The war represents a devastating loss of intellectual capital and institutional knowledge that will take generations to rebuild. The immediate focus is on survival and humanitarian aid, pushing any advancement in science and technology into a distant and uncertain future.

29) Philosophy

Sudanese philosophy is a rich and complex tapestry woven from three major threads: ancient African intellectual traditions, the deep influence of Islamic thought (particularly Sufism), and the modern engagement with Western and post-colonial ideas. The philosophical underpinnings of the region can be traced back to the ancient Nubian civilizations, whose worldview, ethics, and metaphysics are visible through their art, architecture, and religious practices, emphasizing concepts of divine kingship, cosmic order, and the afterlife. These indigenous African philosophical systems, often transmitted orally, continued to influence community life and social ethics even after the arrival of new belief systems, focusing on concepts of community, ancestral wisdom, and harmony with nature.

With the gradual Islamization of Sudan from the 7th century onwards, Islamic philosophy and theology became dominant intellectual forces. Sufism, a mystical branch of Islam, had a particularly profound impact on the Sudanese worldview. Sufi orders (*tariqas*) became important social and spiritual centers, and their teachings emphasized an inward, experiential knowledge of God, love, tolerance, and the importance of a spiritual guide (*sheikh*). Thinkers and poets within these traditions explored deep metaphysical and ethical questions. This Sufi-infused Islam created a unique spiritual and philosophical character in Sudan, one that was often more focused on personal piety and community cohesion than on rigid legalism, and it continues to be a powerful influence on the culture today.

The 20th century brought a new wave of philosophical inquiry as Sudanese intellectuals engaged with Western thought and the challenges of colonialism, independence, and national identity. Figures like Mohamed Abu al-Qasim Haj Hamad and Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na’im have made significant contributions to modern Islamic thought, advocating for reform and the compatibility of Islam with democracy and human rights. A central and often painful theme in modern Sudanese political philosophy has been the “identity crisis”—the struggle to define a national identity that reconciles the country’s Arab and African roots. This debate has fueled political discourse and conflict, with philosophers and intellectuals proposing various visions for a pluralistic and inclusive state. In the current moment of devastating conflict, these philosophical questions of identity, justice, and the basis for a peaceful society have taken on a tragic and urgent importance.

30) Cultural Etiquette

Sudanese cultural etiquette is deeply rooted in the principles of hospitality, respect for elders, and the importance of community, all heavily influenced by Islamic and African traditions. Hospitality is not merely a custom but a sacred duty. A guest is considered a blessing, and hosts will go to great lengths to ensure their comfort and well-being. It is customary to be offered tea, coffee, or a meal, and it is considered polite to accept. Refusing an offer of hospitality can be seen as impolite or insulting. When visiting a Sudanese home, it is a thoughtful gesture to bring a small gift, such as pastries or fruit, for the hosts. Greetings are a crucial and often extended part of any social interaction. A handshake is common among men, but one should wait for a woman to extend her hand first. Inquiring about one’s health and the well-being of their family is an essential part of the greeting process and shows genuine care and respect.

The concepts of family and community are central to Sudanese life. The family unit is the most important social institution, and loyalty to one’s family and tribe is paramount. Elders are shown immense respect and are considered repositories of wisdom. When an elder enters a room, it is customary to stand, and they are always served first during meals. Decisions often involve consultation with family elders. Modesty is a highly valued virtue in both dress and behavior. Both men and women are generally expected to dress conservatively, covering their shoulders and knees, especially when in public or visiting religious sites. Public displays of affection are uncommon and generally frowned upon.

In social interactions, it is important to be mindful of certain customs. The left hand is traditionally considered unclean, so one should always use the right hand to eat, give, or receive items. It is considered rude to show the soles of your feet to someone. While Sudanese people are generally warm and engaging, it is best to approach sensitive topics like politics or religion with caution and respect. It is crucial to acknowledge that the ongoing conflict and humanitarian crisis have placed these deep-seated cultural norms under unimaginable stress. While the spirit of hospitality endures, the ability to practice it has been severely curtailed by displacement, famine, and violence. Any future interaction in a post-conflict Sudan would require deep sensitivity to the trauma the population has endured.

31) Sports and Recreation

In Sudan, sports have traditionally served as a powerful source of national pride and a unifying force in a country often marked by division. By far the most popular sport is football (soccer), which inspires passionate support from corner to corner of the nation. The domestic football league is followed avidly, and the rivalry between the two Omdurman-based giants, Al-Hilal and Al-Merrikh, is one of the most intense in all of Africa. Matches between these two clubs bring the country to a standstill, with fans decked out in the blue of Al-Hilal or the red and yellow of Al-Merrikh. The Sudanese national team, known as the “Falcons of Jediane,” has a proud history, having won the African Cup of Nations in 1970. The sport is played everywhere, from organized stadiums to dusty neighbourhood pitches, and it represents a shared passion that transcends many social and ethnic lines.

While football reigns supreme, another deeply traditional and culturally significant sport is wrestling. Known as Nuba wrestling, this ancient form of sport is particularly popular in the Nuba Mountains of South Kordofan. It is more than just a physical contest; it is a major social and cultural event, often accompanied by music and dancing, that brings communities together. The wrestlers are local heroes, and success in the ring brings great honour to them and their villages. Nuba wrestling emphasizes strength, skill, and sportsmanship, and it serves as a vital tradition that preserves cultural identity and promotes community cohesion. Other sports like basketball and athletics also have a following, with Sudan producing several notable track and field athletes over the years.

It is a tragic reality that all formal sporting and recreational activities have been brought to a halt by the catastrophic war that began in April 2023. Stadiums and sports clubs have been damaged, destroyed, or repurposed as shelters for the displaced. Athletes, like all other citizens, have been killed, displaced, or have fled the country. The leagues have been suspended, and the national teams cannot compete. The shared joy and communal experience of watching a football match or celebrating a local wrestling festival have been replaced by the daily struggle for survival. The revival of sports will be an important part of any future peace and recovery process, offering a way to rebuild community spirit and provide a sense of normalcy after a period of immense trauma.

32) Environmental Concerns

Sudan faces a host of severe and interconnected environmental challenges that are deeply exacerbated by climate change, poverty, and political instability. The most critical and overarching environmental issue is desertification. Large swathes of the country, particularly in the north, Kordofan, and Darfur, lie on the southern edge of the Sahara Desert. This fragile, semi-arid land is highly vulnerable to degradation caused by a combination of factors, including prolonged droughts, erratic rainfall patterns, overgrazing of livestock, and deforestation as people cut down trees for firewood and charcoal. The relentless southward expansion of the desert threatens agricultural land and pastoralist livelihoods, reduces biodiversity, and forces communities to migrate, often leading to competition and conflict over scarce resources like water and fertile land.

Water scarcity is another profound environmental challenge, despite the presence of the Nile River. Sudan is one of the most water-scarce countries in the region. While the Nile provides a vital lifeline, access to it is limited to a narrow corridor of the country. The vast majority of the population relies on seasonal rainfall, which is becoming increasingly unreliable due to climate change. This puts immense pressure on groundwater resources, which are being depleted at an unsustainable rate. The management of the Nile’s waters is also a source of geopolitical tension, particularly concerning the construction of large dams upstream, such as the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD), which Sudan fears could impact the flow of the Blue Nile and the operation of its own dams at Roseires and Sennar.

The ongoing conflict since April 2023 has turned these chronic environmental pressures into an acute catastrophe. The war has led to a complete breakdown of environmental governance and management. The fighting prevents any organized effort to combat desertification or manage natural resources. The mass displacement of millions of people puts immense strain on the environment in the areas where they seek refuge, leading to rapid deforestation and depletion of local water sources. Furthermore, the conflict itself causes direct environmental damage through the destruction of infrastructure, oil spills, and the contamination of land and water with remnants of war. In this context, environmental protection is an impossible luxury, and the long-term ecological health of the nation is being sacrificed amidst the immediate struggle for survival.

33) Marriage & Courtship

In Sudanese society, marriage is not merely a union between two individuals but a significant social and communal event that brings together two families. Traditionally, courtship was a highly structured process, often involving arranged marriages where families played the central role in selecting a suitable partner. While modern couples in urban areas now have more autonomy in choosing their own partners, family approval and involvement remain profoundly important. The courtship process is generally modest and discreet. Once a couple decides to marry, the groom’s family will formally visit the bride’s family to ask for her hand in a process known as the *khutba*. This event serves as the official engagement and is a time for the families to negotiate the dowry (*mahr*), a gift from the groom to the bride which is a requirement under Islamic law, and to plan the wedding festivities.

Sudanese weddings are elaborate, joyous, and multi-day affairs, rich with intricate rituals and ceremonies that are a vibrant expression of the country’s diverse cultural heritage. The celebrations often begin with a henna party for the bride, where her hands and feet are decorated with elaborate patterns. One of the most unique and central ceremonies is the *Jirtig*. During this ritual, both the bride and groom are adorned in traditional red and gold attire. They sit on a decorated bed, and various symbolic acts are performed to bless the couple with fertility, prosperity, and protection from the evil eye. These acts include tying a red silk cord (*harira*) around their wrists and anointing them with traditional perfumes. The wedding culminates in a large reception, where guests celebrate with a feast and music. These ceremonies are powerful affirmations of cultural identity and community bonds, bringing together hundreds of relatives and friends to share in the couple’s joy.

34) Work Opportunities

Prior to the outbreak of widespread conflict in 2023, the landscape of work opportunities in Sudan was reflective of a developing economy facing significant structural challenges. The vast majority of the labor force was, and remains, employed in the agricultural sector. This includes subsistence farming, nomadic pastoralism, and employment in large-scale irrigated schemes like the Gezira project. Key cash crops such as cotton, sesame, and peanuts provided seasonal work, while the country’s global dominance in gum arabic production offered a vital source of income for many rural communities. However, employment in this sector was often characterized by low wages, informal arrangements, and high vulnerability to climate shocks like drought and floods.

Outside of agriculture, the formal job market was limited and highly concentrated in the capital, Khartoum, and a few other urban centers. The public sector was a major employer, providing jobs in government ministries, state-owned enterprises, and the security forces. The private sector was growing but remained relatively small. Opportunities existed in light manufacturing, telecommunications, banking, and transportation. Following the secession of South Sudan, the oil sector shrank dramatically, but a burgeoning gold mining industry, much of it artisanal, emerged as a significant, albeit often dangerous, source of employment. The international aid community also represented a key source of work, with numerous national and international non-governmental organizations (NGOs) employing staff for humanitarian and development projects across the country.

It must be unequivocally stated that the current conflict has decimated the job market and destroyed the economy. Formal work opportunities are now virtually non-existent in conflict-affected areas. Businesses have been looted and destroyed, supply chains are broken, and the banking system has collapsed. The primary “work” for millions is the desperate struggle for survival: finding food, water, and safety. The public sector has ceased to function, and civil servants have gone unpaid for months. The international aid sector is one of the few areas still operating, but it is focused entirely on life-saving humanitarian response and faces extreme security risks. The concept of seeking stable employment in Sudan is, at present, a tragic impossibility. Any future reconstruction will require a monumental effort to not only rebuild infrastructure but to create the basic conditions for economic activity and employment to resume.

35) Education

The education system in Sudan, before its near-total collapse due to the current conflict, was structured into three main stages: basic education, secondary education, and higher education, all overseen by the federal Ministry of Education. The system has long faced formidable challenges, including inadequate funding, a lack of resources, and significant regional disparities in access and quality. Basic education is officially compulsory and free, lasting for eight years (grades 1-8). This stage is intended to provide all children with foundational literacy and numeracy skills. Following basic education, students proceed to secondary school, which lasts for three years and is divided into academic and technical tracks, designed to prepare students for either university or vocational careers. The language of instruction is officially Arabic.

Despite the official policy of free and compulsory education, enrollment and completion rates have historically been problematic, particularly for girls, in rural areas, and in regions affected by previous conflicts like Darfur and the Nuba Mountains. The quality of education has been a major concern, with overcrowded classrooms, a shortage of qualified teachers, and a scarcity of textbooks and learning materials. For decades, the system has been under immense strain. The 2019 revolution brought hopes for significant reforms aimed at creating a more inclusive and modern curriculum that would promote critical thinking and reflect the country’s diversity, moving away from the Islamist-focused curriculum imposed under the previous regime. These reform efforts, however, were still in their infancy when they were halted by subsequent political instability.

Higher education in Sudan was once well-regarded in the region, with the University of Khartoum, established in 1902, standing as a prestigious institution. The country is home to dozens of public and private universities and colleges. However, the higher education sector has also suffered from political interference, lack of funding, and a decline in academic standards. The current war has delivered a devastating blow to the entire education system. Schools and universities across the country, especially in Khartoum, have been damaged, destroyed, or occupied by warring factions. Millions of children are out of school, and an entire generation is at risk of being lost to conflict and displacement. The destruction of the educational infrastructure represents a catastrophic loss for the future of Sudan, one that will take decades to recover from.

36) Communication & Connectivity

Prior to the devastating conflict that began in 2023, Sudan’s communication and connectivity infrastructure was undergoing a period of slow but steady development, though it faced significant disparities between urban and rural areas. The mobile telecommunications market was the most developed part of the sector, dominated by a few major international operators, primarily Zain and MTN, along with the local provider Sudani. Mobile phone penetration was relatively high, with services covering most of the populated areas along the Nile corridor and in major towns. These companies provided 2G and 3G services, with 4G/LTE being increasingly available in Khartoum and other key cities. For many Sudanese, mobile phones were the primary and often only means of accessing the internet and communication services.

Fixed-line internet access remained limited and was largely concentrated in the capital, Khartoum. Services were delivered primarily through DSL technology, with fiber optic connections being rare and mostly available to corporate clients. The quality and reliability of internet services were often inconsistent, and prices were relatively high for the average citizen. Internet cafes were common in urban areas and served as an important access point for those without a personal connection. The government during the transitional period had recognized the importance of digital infrastructure for economic development and had initiated plans to expand broadband access, but these efforts were still in their early stages and faced significant financial and logistical hurdles.

The war has resulted in the catastrophic destruction of this vital infrastructure. Telecommunication towers have been destroyed, fiber optic cables have been cut, and company offices have been looted. This has led to frequent and prolonged network blackouts across large parts of the country, including the capital and the Darfur region. The warring factions have also weaponized connectivity, deliberately shutting down networks to disrupt their opponents’ communications and to prevent the outside world from witnessing the atrocities being committed. For the Sudanese people, this loss of communication has been devastating, cutting them off from family, preventing them from accessing life-saving information, and crippling the ability of humanitarian organizations to coordinate aid delivery. The deliberate and collateral damage to the communication network has plunged the country into an information darkness, exacerbating the humanitarian crisis.

37) National Symbols

Sudan’s national symbols are a reflection of its diverse geography, rich history, and the aspirations of its people. These emblems draw from the natural world and the nation’s long journey from ancient kingdoms to its modern identity, representing sovereignty and national pride.

Symbol Category	Name/Description
National Flag	A tricolor of three horizontal stripes: red, white, and black, with a green triangle at the hoist. The red symbolizes the struggles and martyrs of the nation, white represents peace and optimism, black signifies Sudan itself (“land of the blacks” in Arabic), and the green triangle represents Islam and prosperity.
National Emblem	The emblem of Sudan features a Secretarybird bearing a shield from the time of the Mahdi. Two scrolls are placed on the emblem; the upper one displays the national motto, “Al-Nasr Lana” (Victory is Ours), and the lower one displays the title of the state, “Jumhuriyat as-Sudan” (The Republic of the Sudan).
National Anthem	“Nahnu Jund Allah Jund Al-watan” (We are the Army of God and of our Land). The anthem was originally a military anthem before being adopted upon independence in 1956. Its lyrics speak of defending the nation with determination and sacrifice.
National Animal (Fauna)	The Secretarybird (*Sagittarius serpentarius*) is the national animal, featured prominently on the national emblem. This large, terrestrial bird of prey is known for its distinctive crest of long feathers that resemble quill pens, and it is a symbol of protection and pride.
National Tree (Flora)	The Acacia tree, particularly the *Acacia senegal* species, is considered the national tree. This hardy, drought-resistant tree is the source of Gum Arabic, Sudan’s most famous agricultural export, making it a powerful symbol of the nation’s natural wealth and resilience.
Cultural Symbol	The *Jalabiyya* and *Tobe* are powerful cultural symbols. The *Jalabiyya* is the long, loose-fitting white robe worn by many Sudanese men, representing tradition and simplicity. The *Tobe* is the elegant, colorful wrap-around garment worn by women, a symbol of grace, modesty, and Sudanese identity.
Cultural Instrument	The *Tanbūr*, or Kissar, is a type of lyre found in the region of Nubia. Its ancient design and distinctive sound connect modern Sudan to its deep historical roots in the cultures of the Nile Valley.
Cultural Icon	The Pyramids of Meroë are arguably the most potent symbol of Sudan’s ancient heritage. These unique, steep-sided pyramids represent the glory of the Kingdom of Kush and stand as a testament to Sudan’s place as a cradle of African civilization.
National Dish	Ful Medames, a stew of cooked fava beans, is widely considered the national dish. It is a hearty, nutritious, and ubiquitous staple food, often eaten for breakfast and shared communally.

38) Tourism

Sudan possesses an archaeological and cultural heritage of staggering significance, offering a glimpse into some of Africa’s most ancient and powerful civilizations. Historically, the country’s main draw for the intrepid traveler was its unparalleled collection of Nubian archaeological sites scattered along the Nile. The most famous of these is the Royal Necropolis of Meroë, a UNESCO World Heritage site where over 200 steep-sided pyramids rise dramatically from the desert sands. These were the tombs of the kings and queens of the Kushite Kingdom. Further north, the holy mountain of Jebel Barkal, another World Heritage site, features temples and smaller pyramids from the Napatan era, including the great Temple of Amun. Exploring these sites offered a unique and crowd-free alternative to the more famous monuments in Egypt, allowing visitors to feel like true explorers discovering a lost world.

Beyond the ancient pyramids, Sudan’s cultural and natural attractions held immense potential. The capital, Khartoum, offered a unique urban experience at the confluence of the Blue and White Niles. Visitors could explore the Omdurman souk, one of the most authentic markets in Africa, witness the mesmerizing spectacle of the Whirling Dervishes at the Hamed al-Nil tomb on Friday evenings, or visit the National Museum to see priceless artifacts rescued from the flooding of Lake Nasser. For nature enthusiasts, the Red Sea coast provided world-class diving and snorkeling opportunities, with pristine coral reefs teeming with marine life, largely untouched by mass tourism. The diverse cultures, from the camel-herding nomads of the desert to the unique traditions of the Nuba Mountains, also offered profound cultural immersion experiences. This rich potential, however, remains tragically unrealized.

CRITICAL WARNING: It must be stated in the strongest possible terms that tourism in Sudan is currently impossible and extremely dangerous. The country is in the grip of a brutal civil war that has engulfed Khartoum and many other regions. Archaeological sites are inaccessible, infrastructure is destroyed, and basic safety cannot be guaranteed. Foreign governments universally advise against all travel to Sudan. The information presented here is for historical and educational context only and does not in any way constitute a recommendation to travel. The future of tourism is entirely dependent on the cessation of hostilities and a long, arduous process of stabilization and rebuilding.

39) Visa and Entry Requirements

This section describes the visa and entry requirements for Sudan as they existed before the outbreak of the war in April 2023. These regulations are no longer applicable as most embassies are closed and entry into the country is perilous and largely uncontrolled. Historically, obtaining a visa for Sudan was a mandatory and often lengthy process for citizens of most countries. With very few exceptions, all foreign nationals were required to secure a visa in advance from a Sudanese embassy or consulate in their home country or country of legal residence. Visa-free access was not common. The process typically required submitting a passport valid for at least six months, a completed application form, passport photos, and often a letter of invitation or a confirmed hotel booking.

Upon securing a visa and arriving in Sudan, further bureaucratic steps were necessary. All foreign nationals were required to register with the Aliens Department of the Ministry of Interior within three days of arrival. This registration was a separate process from the visa itself and was mandatory. Hotels would often assist with this process for a fee, but independent travelers staying in private residences had to complete it themselves. Proof of registration, usually a stamp in the passport, was required upon departure, and failure to register could lead to fines or delays when leaving the country. Additionally, for any travel outside of the capital, Khartoum, a special travel permit was often required, which involved another application process detailing the intended itinerary.

CURRENT SITUATION: The visa and entry system described above is defunct. Sudanese embassies in many countries have suspended consular services. Borders are either closed or extremely dangerous to cross, and control is contested by warring factions. There is no functioning central government authority to issue visas or manage entry. Any attempt to enter Sudan under the current conditions is fraught with extreme danger, including the risk of being caught in crossfire, kidnapping, or being stranded without any consular assistance. All foreign governments have issued their highest-level travel warnings, advising their citizens to avoid all travel to Sudan and for those remaining to shelter in place or attempt to depart only when and if a secure corridor becomes available.

40) Useful Resources

Given the current conflict and humanitarian crisis in Sudan, traditional travel resources are not applicable. The following resources provide information on the humanitarian situation, news from the region, and contact information for international organizations providing aid. This is for informational purposes only.

• United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) – Sudan – Provides situation reports and data on the humanitarian crisis.
• Human Rights Watch – Sudan – Reports on human rights violations and the conduct of the warring parties.
• Doctors Without Borders / Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) in Sudan – Information from one of the key medical aid organizations operating on the ground.
• Reuters – Africa News – A reliable international news source for up-to-date reporting on the conflict.
• Al Jazeera – Africa – In-depth news coverage and analysis of the situation in Sudan and the wider region.

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