🇸🇾 An Informational Guide to Syria

21) Brief History

Syria, situated at the heart of the Levant, is a land steeped in one of the longest and richest histories on Earth, a crucible of civilizations that has profoundly shaped the course of human history. Archaeological evidence from sites like Tell Hamoukar suggests that urban civilization here is among the world’s oldest, predating even many of the famous Mesopotamian city-states. The ancient city of Ebla, discovered in the 1970s, revealed a vast kingdom that thrived in the 3rd millennium BC, with a library of thousands of cuneiform tablets that documented a sophisticated, powerful, and literate society. Over the subsequent millennia, Syria became a battleground and a prize for a succession of mighty empires, including the Egyptians, Hittites, Assyrians, Babylonians, and Persians. Each left an indelible mark on the land and its people. In the 4th century BC, Alexander the Great conquered the region, ushering in a long period of Hellenistic influence, followed by the Roman Empire, which transformed Syria into one of its most prosperous and important provinces. The cities of Palmyra, Dura-Europos, and Bosra flourished as major centers on the Silk Road, blending Greco-Roman architecture with local Semitic and Persian influences.

The 7th century AD marked a pivotal turning point with the arrival of Islam. The Arab conquest brought not only a new religion but also the Arabic language, which gradually replaced Aramaic. Damascus, already one of the world’s oldest continuously inhabited cities, reached its zenith when it was chosen as the capital of the Umayyad Caliphate in 661 AD. From Damascus, the Umayyads ruled a vast empire stretching from Spain to India, and the city became a global center of power, learning, and art. The magnificent Umayyad Mosque, built on the site of a Roman temple and a Christian basilica, stands as a testament to this golden age. Following the Umayyads, Syria was ruled by the Abbasids, various local dynasties, and then the Crusaders, who established several states along the coast, leading to centuries of conflict. The legendary Kurdish sultan Saladin recaptured Jerusalem and much of the region, and his tomb remains in Damascus. The Mamluks of Egypt later took control, followed by the Ottoman Turks in 1516, who ruled Syria for four centuries until the end of World War I.

The 20th century was a period of profound political turmoil and change. After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the secret Sykes-Picot Agreement between Britain and France carved up the Middle East, placing Syria under a French mandate. This colonial rule was met with fierce resistance and numerous revolts, fostering a strong sense of Arab nationalism. Syria finally achieved full independence in 1946. The post-independence era was characterized by political instability, military coups, and brief, ill-fated unions with Egypt. In 1963, the Arab Socialist Ba’ath Party seized power in a coup, and in 1970, Hafez al-Assad, a military officer, consolidated his control, establishing an authoritarian rule that would be passed to his son, Bashar al-Assad, in 2000. This period of autocratic rule, coupled with simmering social and sectarian tensions, culminated in the outbreak of a popular uprising in March 2011. The government’s brutal crackdown on protesters plunged the country into a devastating and complex civil war, which has since resulted in a catastrophic humanitarian crisis, the destruction of much of the country’s infrastructure and cultural heritage, and the deaths of hundreds of thousands of people.

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22) Geography

The geography of Syria is remarkably diverse, encompassing a wide range of landscapes from fertile coastal plains and high mountain ranges to vast, arid steppes and deserts. The country is located in the Middle East, at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea, bordered by Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east and southeast, Jordan to the south, and Israel and Lebanon to the southwest. This strategic location has made it a historical crossroads for trade, culture, and conflict for millennia. The country’s terrain can be broadly divided into several distinct geographical regions. In the west, a narrow coastal plain runs parallel to the Mediterranean Sea. This region, home to cities like Latakia and Tartus, features a Mediterranean climate with hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters, making it Syria’s most fertile area for agriculture, known for its citrus groves and vegetable farms. This coastal plain is separated from the interior by a series of mountain ranges that run from north to south, creating a significant geographical and climatic barrier.

The most prominent of these mountain ranges is the an-Nusayriyah Mountains (also known as the Alawite Mountains), which catch the moisture-laden winds from the Mediterranean, resulting in higher rainfall on their western slopes. East of this range lies the Ghab Plain, a fertile depression through which the Orontes River flows. Further to the east is the Anti-Lebanon mountain range, which forms a natural border with Lebanon and includes Mount Hermon (Jabal al-Shaykh) at its southern end. At 2,814 meters, Mount Hermon is Syria’s highest point, and its snow-capped peaks are a vital source of water for the rivers and springs in the region, including the Barada River that waters the famous Ghouta oasis around Damascus. This mountainous spine dictates the country’s hydrology and creates a rain shadow effect, leading to a much drier climate in the interior regions to the east.

The vast majority of Syria’s land area, covering the eastern and southern parts of the country, consists of an arid plateau known as the Syrian Desert (Badiya). This region is characterized by a harsh desert climate with very little rainfall and extreme temperatures. It is a stony, semi-desert landscape interspersed with occasional volcanic massifs like the Jabal al-Druze in the far south. The Euphrates River, one of the great rivers of Western Asia, cuts a vital lifeline across this arid landscape. Originating in Turkey, it flows southeastward through Syria before entering Iraq. For centuries, the fertile banks of the Euphrates have supported agriculture and settlement in the otherwise inhospitable desert. The construction of the Tabqa Dam on the Euphrates in the 1970s created Lake Assad, Syria’s largest lake, which is crucial for irrigation and hydroelectric power. The devastating civil war since 2011 has had a profound impact on this geography, leading to environmental degradation, damage to water infrastructure, and shifts in population distribution.

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23) Politics and Government

It is crucial to understand that the political and governmental structure of Syria has been fundamentally shaped by decades of authoritarian rule and, since 2011, a catastrophic civil war that has fractured the country. Nominally, the Syrian Arab Republic is a semi-presidential republic, governed by the constitution of 2012. However, in practice, the country has been under the firm, autocratic control of the Arab Socialist Ba’ath Party since its seizure of power in a 1963 coup. The political system is completely dominated by the executive branch, with immense power concentrated in the hands of the President. According to the constitution, the President is elected for a seven-year term, but since 1970, the presidency has been held exclusively by the Assad family—first by Hafez al-Assad and, since his death in 2000, by his son, Bashar al-Assad. The President holds sweeping powers, including command of the military, the authority to appoint and dismiss the Prime Minister and cabinet, and the power to issue laws by decree. The political environment is characterized by a total lack of democratic freedoms, with no meaningful political opposition permitted to function.

The Ba’ath Party is the ruling political entity, and its privileged status was, until 2012, enshrined in the constitution, which designated it as the “leader of the state and society.” While this article was formally removed, the party’s dominance remains absolute. It controls a political coalition known as the National Progressive Front (NPF), a grouping of several smaller, state-sanctioned political parties that are allied with the Ba’ath Party and have no independent power. This structure creates a façade of a multi-party system while ensuring that no genuine political competition can emerge. The state’s extensive and feared security apparatus, composed of numerous intelligence agencies collectively known as the “Mukhabarat,” plays a critical role in maintaining the regime’s grip on power. These agencies have been responsible for decades of systematic human rights abuses, including arbitrary detention, torture, and the suppression of all forms of dissent, practices that have been massively escalated since the 2011 uprising.

The legislative branch is the People’s Council (Majlis al-Sha’ab). It is a unicameral parliament with 250 members elected for a four-year term. In theory, the council is responsible for passing laws, approving the budget, and debating government policy. In reality, it serves as a rubber stamp for the decisions of the executive branch. The vast majority of its seats are held by the Ba’ath Party and its NPF allies, and elections are neither free nor fair. Since the onset of the civil war in 2011, the government’s control over the country has been shattered. Large swathes of Syrian territory have been held by a complex and shifting array of opposition groups, including moderate rebel factions, Islamist groups like Hay’at Tahrir al-Sham, and the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) in the northeast. This has resulted in a de facto partition of the country, with different regions governed by different military and political authorities, and the central government in Damascus, propped up by its key allies Russia and Iran, controlling only a portion of its sovereign territory.

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24) Law and Criminal Justice

The legal system of Syria, in its formal structure, is based on the civil law tradition, heavily influenced by the French legal system, which was implemented during the French Mandate period after World War I. This framework is characterized by the codification of its laws, with comprehensive legal codes governing major areas like civil law, commercial law, and criminal procedure. The Syrian Civil Code is the cornerstone of private law, regulating contracts, property, and personal obligations. In addition to the French civil law influence, Islamic jurisprudence (Sharia) is a significant source of law, particularly for personal status matters. A separate system of religious courts exists to handle issues of marriage, divorce, inheritance, and child custody for Muslim citizens, with the laws applied often depending on the specific sect of the individuals involved. Christian and other religious minorities have their own religious courts to adjudicate personal status issues according to their own traditions. The supreme law of the land is formally the Constitution, but its principles have been consistently subverted by the executive branch.

The judicial system is nominally independent, but in practice, it is heavily influenced and controlled by the executive branch and the ruling Ba’ath Party. The regular court system is structured in a hierarchy. At the lowest level are the Magistrates’ Courts (or Peace Courts), which handle minor civil and criminal cases. Above them are the Courts of First Instance, which have broader jurisdiction over more significant civil and criminal matters. Appeals from these courts are heard by the Courts of Appeal, which exist in each of the country’s governorates. The highest court of ordinary jurisdiction is the Court of Cassation in Damascus, which is the final court of appeal for civil, commercial, and criminal cases, ensuring the uniform application of the law. There is also a High Constitutional Court, which is theoretically responsible for reviewing the constitutionality of laws, but it lacks genuine independence and has never challenged the authority of the regime.

It is impossible to discuss the law and criminal justice system in Syria without acknowledging its complete breakdown and perversion since 2011. The formal legal system has been largely superseded by a parallel and far more powerful system of state-sponsored repression and arbitrary rule. The country has been under a state of emergency for most of the Ba’athist rule, which was used to justify the creation of special security courts, such as the Supreme State Security Court (now abolished but replaced by others like the Counter-Terrorism Court). These courts operate outside the normal legal framework, denying defendants basic rights such as access to a lawyer, the right to a fair trial, and the right to appeal. The intelligence agencies (Mukhabarat) operate with total impunity, running a vast network of clandestine prisons where systematic torture, summary executions, and enforced disappearances are widespread and well-documented by international human rights organizations. In opposition-held territories, various non-state actors have established their own forms of justice, ranging from Sharia-based courts in Islamist-controlled areas to ad-hoc local councils, creating a patchwork of competing and often brutal legal realities across the fractured nation.

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25) Foreign Relations

The foreign relations of Syria are complex and have been defined by a history of Arab nationalism, anti-imperialism, and a pragmatic but often confrontational approach to regional and international politics. For decades under the rule of Hafez al-Assad, Syria’s foreign policy was guided by several core objectives: seeking a leadership role in the Arab world, opposing Israel and seeking the return of the Golan Heights (occupied by Israel in the 1967 Six-Day War), and maintaining a strategic alliance with the Soviet Union during the Cold War. Syria played a central role in the politics of the Levant, particularly in Lebanon, where it maintained a significant military presence for nearly 30 years until 2005. The country positioned itself as a key “rejectionist state,” opposing peace initiatives with Israel that did not meet its demands, which often put it at odds with more moderate Arab nations and the United States. This posture, combined with its support for various Palestinian militant groups and Hezbollah in Lebanon, led to Syria being placed on the U.S. list of State Sponsors of Terrorism, resulting in decades of sanctions and international isolation.

The outbreak of the Syrian civil war in 2011 completely reshaped the country’s foreign relations, transforming it from a regional actor into a shattered arena for international and regional proxy warfare. The conflict has starkly divided the international community and has drawn in numerous foreign powers with competing interests. The survival of the Assad government has been entirely dependent on the direct and massive intervention of its two key allies: Russia and the Islamic Republic of Iran. Russia’s military intervention, which began in 2015, provided the critical airpower that turned the tide of the war in favor of the regime, securing its hold on key parts of the country. Iran, along with its proxy forces like Lebanon’s Hezbollah and various Iraqi militias, has provided essential ground troops, financial support, and strategic guidance to the Syrian government. This deep reliance has effectively mortgaged Syria’s sovereignty, giving Moscow and Tehran immense and lasting influence over the country’s political, economic, and military affairs.

On the opposing side, a different set of foreign powers have supported various factions of the Syrian opposition. In the early years of the conflict, the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, and Qatar provided varying degrees of financial, political, and military support to rebel groups seeking to overthrow the Assad regime. However, the rise of extremist jihadist groups like the Islamic State (ISIS) and al-Qaeda affiliates within the opposition ranks complicated this support and shifted international priorities towards counter-terrorism. Turkey has conducted several major military incursions into northern Syria, creating a buffer zone controlled by Turkish-backed Syrian opposition forces to counter both Kurdish groups and ISIS. The United States has maintained a small military presence in the northeast, partnering with the Kurdish-led Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) in the successful campaign against ISIS. As a result, Syria’s foreign relations are no longer managed from a unified capital but are fragmented across a landscape of foreign-backed enclaves, with the country’s future dependent on the geopolitical maneuverings of external powers.

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26) Administrative Divisions

The formal administrative structure of the Syrian Arab Republic is organized into a hierarchical system, with the governorate (muhafazah) serving as the primary, or first-level, administrative division. The country is divided into 14 governorates, including the capital city of Damascus, which has a special status as a governorate in its own right. Each governorate is headed by a governor, who is appointed by the President. The governor is the central government’s chief representative in the province, responsible for public administration, development, and security. This centralized appointment system ensures that the regional administrations are kept under the firm control of the executive branch in Damascus, a key feature of Syria’s highly centralized state structure. The governorates vary widely in terms of their geographical area, population, and economic importance. For example, the Aleppo Governorate in the north was historically the most populous and an industrial powerhouse, while the vast Deir ez-Zor and Homs governorates in the east and center are dominated by desert landscapes.

Each governorate is further subdivided into districts (manatiq), which serve as the second-level administrative unit. There are over 60 districts spread across the 14 governorates. A district is administered by a district officer, also appointed by the central government, who reports to the governor. The district capital is typically the most significant town or city within that particular area. These districts provide a more localized level of administration for services such as policing and public records. The districts are themselves broken down into sub-districts (nawahi), which represent the third and lowest level of the formal administrative hierarchy. A sub-district is a collection of villages and smaller towns. This formal, three-tiered structure of governorates, districts, and sub-districts provides the official framework for governance and census-taking in the country. This system, however, has been profoundly disrupted by the events since 2011.

The onset of the civil war in 2011 has led to a complete fracture of this administrative system and a de facto redrawing of the map of control in Syria. The central government in Damascus no longer exercises authority over the entire country. Large areas have fallen under the control of various non-state actors, each establishing its own form of governance. In the northwest, Idlib Governorate is largely administered by Hay’at Tahrir al-Sham, which has set up a “Salvation Government.” In the northeast, large parts of the Hasakah, Raqqa, and Deir ez-Zor governorates are governed by the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria (AANES), led by Kurdish political parties and their military wing, the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF). Furthermore, parts of northern Aleppo Governorate are under the direct control of Turkey and its allied Syrian opposition factions. This has rendered the official administrative divisions largely meaningless in many parts of the country, replaced by a complex and fluid patchwork of competing zones of influence, each with its own security forces, service providers, and administrative structures.

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27) Economy & Commodities

Prior to the devastating civil war that began in 2011, the Syrian economy was that of a lower-middle-income, developing country with a relatively diversified structure. The state played a dominant role, a legacy of the Ba’ath Party’s socialist ideology, controlling most major industries and heavily subsidizing essential goods like fuel, bread, and electricity. However, starting in the early 2000s under Bashar al-Assad, the government had initiated a gradual and cautious process of economic liberalization, opening the door to private investment, particularly in the banking, tourism, and retail sectors. The economy was based on a mix of agriculture, industry, and services, with a significant contribution from its energy sector. Oil was the most important commodity and the leading source of export revenue, providing a crucial stream of hard currency for the government. While Syria was not a major global oil producer on the scale of its Gulf neighbors, its oil and gas reserves were vital for the state’s finances. The agricultural sector was also a cornerstone of the pre-war economy, employing a substantial portion of the population. Syria was largely self-sufficient in food production and was a significant regional producer of commodities like cotton, wheat, olives, and pistachios.

The industrial sector was also well-established, with a focus on textiles, food processing, and cement production. The city of Aleppo was the historical industrial and commercial capital of Syria, renowned for its skilled artisans and its vast manufacturing base, producing everything from traditional soaps to sophisticated textiles. The tourism sector was a rapidly growing source of income, as Syria’s wealth of incredible historical and archaeological sites—including the ancient cities of Damascus, Aleppo, and Palmyra, and the Crusader castle of Krak des Chevaliers—attracted an increasing number of international visitors. This pre-war economy, while facing challenges like high unemployment and corruption, had a functioning infrastructure and a degree of stability that supported the livelihoods of millions. This economic landscape has since been completely and utterly decimated, leaving the country in a state of near-total collapse.

The impact of the civil war on the Syrian economy has been nothing short of catastrophic. The conflict has resulted in a humanitarian and economic crisis of unimaginable proportions. GDP has plummeted by a staggering amount, and the vast majority of the population has been pushed into extreme poverty. The country’s infrastructure—including factories, hospitals, schools, roads, and power plants—has been systematically destroyed. The oil and gas fields, a vital source of revenue, fell out of government control for long periods and have been heavily damaged, with production now at a fraction of pre-war levels. The manufacturing hub of Aleppo was the scene of some of the most brutal fighting of the war, leaving its industrial heartland in ruins. Agriculture has been crippled by the displacement of farmers, the destruction of irrigation systems, and the insecurity that prevents access to land. International sanctions imposed on the Assad government have further choked the formal economy, leading to hyperinflation, a currency crisis, and severe shortages of essential goods. The economy today is a fractured and shattered entity, dominated by a war economy characterized by smuggling, black markets, and the plunder of resources.

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28) Science and Technology

Historically, the region of modern-day Syria was a cradle of scientific and technological innovation that profoundly influenced the world. During antiquity, the cities of the Levant were centers of learning and invention. The development of one of the first alphabetic writing systems by the Phoenicians along the coast was a revolutionary technological leap in communication. During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, Syria was home to renowned schools of philosophy and science. This intellectual tradition reached a new zenith during the Islamic Golden Age. Under the Umayyad and later Abbasid caliphates, Damascus and Aleppo became major global centers for science, medicine, and mathematics. Scholars in these cities translated and preserved the great works of Greek thinkers like Aristotle, Ptolemy, and Galen, which might otherwise have been lost to history. They did not just preserve this knowledge; they built upon it, making significant original contributions in fields like algebra, optics, astronomy, and medicine. The hospitals (bimaristans) of Damascus were among the most advanced in the world, serving as centers for treatment, medical education, and research.

In the modern era, prior to the 2011 conflict, Syria’s science and technology sector was in a developing state, with a framework established and managed primarily by the government. The state-run university system, led by institutions like Damascus University and the University of Aleppo, was the main pillar of scientific research and technical education in the country. The government also established several research bodies, with the most prominent being the Scientific Studies and Research Center (SSRC). While nominally a civilian research institution focused on a range of scientific fields, the SSRC has been widely identified by Western intelligence agencies as the primary government body responsible for research and development of advanced military technology, including chemical weapons and ballistic missiles. This military focus meant that civilian R&D and technological innovation for the broader economy remained underdeveloped and underfunded, lacking the dynamism and private-sector involvement seen in many other countries.

The civil war has had a devastating and catastrophic impact on Syria’s science and technology landscape. The conflict has led to a massive brain drain, with a huge number of scientists, doctors, engineers, and academics fleeing the country as refugees, depriving Syria of its most valuable intellectual capital. Universities and research facilities have been damaged or destroyed in the fighting, and the education system has been shattered, crippling the pipeline for future generations of scientists and innovators. The SSRC and other state facilities have been targeted by international airstrikes due to their connection with the country’s chemical weapons program. The focus of the state and the broader population has shifted entirely to survival, and the resources for scientific research and technological development have evaporated. Rebuilding Syria’s scientific and technological capacity will be a monumental task for future generations, requiring not only the reconstruction of physical infrastructure but also the slow and difficult process of winning back its lost human capital and re-establishing an environment where education and research can once again flourish.

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29) Philosophy

Syria’s contribution to the history of philosophy is immense and foundational, stretching back to antiquity when the region was a vibrant melting pot of ideas and a crossroads of intellectual traditions. During the Hellenistic era, following the conquests of Alexander the Great, Syria became a major center for Greek philosophy in the Eastern Mediterranean. The city of Apamea, on the Orontes River, was home to a renowned school of Stoic philosophy, most famously associated with the philosopher Posidonius, who was a teacher to prominent Romans like Cicero. Stoicism, with its emphasis on reason, virtue, and living in accordance with nature, found fertile ground in the cosmopolitan society of Roman Syria. The region was also a center for Neoplatonism, a school of mystical philosophy that synthesized the ideas of Plato with Eastern traditions. The 3rd-century philosopher Porphyry of Tyre (in modern-day Lebanon, but part of the Syrian cultural sphere) was one of the most important figures in Neoplatonism, and his writings were hugely influential on later Christian, Jewish, and Islamic thought.

The philosophical landscape of Syria was profoundly transformed by the rise of Christianity. The region was one of the earliest centers of the new faith, and Syrian Christian thinkers played a crucial role in the development of early Christian theology and philosophy. The city of Antioch was a major center of Christian learning, known for its distinctive school of biblical interpretation that emphasized a more literal and historical approach, in contrast to the allegorical methods of Alexandria. Syrian Christian philosophers writing in Syriac, a dialect of Aramaic, were instrumental in translating Greek philosophical works, particularly those of Aristotle, into their language. This act of translation was of monumental importance, as it was largely through these Syriac translations that the works of Aristotle and other Greek philosophers were later transmitted to the Arab world after the Islamic conquests. Thinkers like Sergius of Reshaina in the 6th century were prolific translators who helped to build the bridge between the classical Greek world and the subsequent Islamic intellectual tradition.

During the Islamic Golden Age, Syrian cities, especially Damascus and Aleppo, once again became beacon-like centers of philosophical and intellectual activity. Islamic philosophy, or “falsafa,” which was heavily influenced by the Greek works that had been preserved in Syriac, flourished here. Thinkers like Al-Farabi, though born in Central Asia, spent much of his productive life in Aleppo and Damascus, and is considered one of the founding fathers of Islamic philosophy. He sought to create a synthesis of Platonic and Aristotelian philosophy with Islamic theology, exploring questions of metaphysics, political philosophy, and the nature of the ideal state. In the modern era, Syrian intellectuals like Sadiq Jalal al-Azm became prominent figures in Arab philosophical discourse in the 20th century, known for his secularist views and his incisive critiques of traditional thought and political structures. The devastating conflict since 2011 has shattered this intellectual environment, but Syria’s historical legacy as a land of profound philosophical inquiry remains undeniable.

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30) Cultural Etiquette

Understanding the cultural etiquette of Syria requires an appreciation for a society deeply rooted in traditions of hospitality, respect for elders, and the importance of family and community. This section describes these customs from a historical and cultural perspective, as the current conflict has profoundly disrupted social norms. Hospitality is a cornerstone of Syrian culture. Historically, a guest was considered a blessing, and hosts would go to great lengths to make a visitor feel welcome and honored. It was customary to offer a guest the best food and drink available, even if the host’s family had little for themselves. Refusing an offer of coffee, tea, or a small snack could be seen as impolite. This tradition of generosity and warmth was a source of immense pride and a defining feature of social life. Conversations would often be leisurely, as building personal rapport was considered more important than rushing straight to business. Inquiring about a person’s health and family (though not direct inquiries about female family members) was a standard and polite way to begin any interaction.

Respect for age and social hierarchy is a fundamental aspect of Syrian etiquette. Elders are deeply venerated and are always greeted first and shown the utmost deference. When entering a room, it was customary to greet the oldest person first. Younger people would stand up when an elder entered, would not speak over them, and would yield the most comfortable seating position to them. This respect extended to professional and social settings, where status and seniority were important. Family is the central unit of Syrian society, providing individuals with their identity, support system, and social standing. The honor and reputation of the family are paramount, and an individual’s actions reflect upon their entire kin. This collective identity fostered a strong sense of loyalty and obligation to one’s family members. The distinction between public and private life was very important, with matters of family honor and personal issues considered highly private and not for public discussion.

In terms of social interaction, there were clear distinctions in conduct between genders. Physical contact between men and women in public was generally avoided unless they were close family members. A handshake was common in professional settings, but it was always best to wait for a woman to extend her hand first. Modesty in dress, for both men and women, was traditionally valued, especially in more conservative areas and when visiting religious sites like mosques. When dining, it was considered polite to accept second and even third helpings of food, as this showed appreciation for the host’s generosity. Using the left hand for eating or passing objects was considered unclean, as the left hand is reserved for personal hygiene. It is with great sadness that one must note that the war has not only destroyed infrastructure but has also torn at this rich social fabric, creating an environment of fear, distrust, and survival that has overshadowed many of these gracious traditions.

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31) Sports and Recreation

Before the outbreak of the civil war in 2011, sports and recreation were an important and developing aspect of Syrian social life, providing a source of entertainment, national pride, and a sense of unity. The most popular sport in the country, by a significant margin, was football (soccer). The Syrian national football team was a source of great passion and pride for many citizens, and their matches in international competitions, particularly the AFC Asian Cup and FIFA World Cup qualifiers, would capture the nation’s attention. The team, nicknamed the “Qasioun Eagles” after the mountain overlooking Damascus, had a dedicated following. On the domestic front, the Syrian Premier League was the top professional football league, featuring clubs from major cities like Damascus, Aleppo, Homs, and Latakia. Clubs like Al-Jaish (The Army), Al-Karamah, and Al-Ittihad had fierce rivalries and loyal fan bases, and their matches would draw large, enthusiastic crowds, serving as a major form of public recreation.

Basketball was another popular sport with a significant following, particularly in cities like Aleppo, which was a traditional powerhouse of the sport. The Syrian national basketball team also competed at the international level, participating in the FIBA Asia Championship. Other sports had a strong presence as well. Wrestling and boxing were popular combat sports in which Syrian athletes had achieved success at the regional and even Olympic level. Weightlifting was another area of strength. The country’s location in the Mediterranean also fostered an interest in swimming and other water sports, especially in coastal cities like Latakia. Equestrian sports also held a place of prestige, reflecting the long and noble tradition of horsemanship in Arab culture. The government, through its General Sports Federation, was the primary body responsible for funding and organizing sporting activities, and it operated major sporting venues like the Abbasiyyin Stadium in Damascus and the Aleppo International Stadium.

The civil war has had a devastating and tragic impact on every aspect of Syrian life, and sports and recreation have been no exception. Many athletes have been killed in the conflict, while others have been forced to flee the country as refugees, their careers cut short. Numerous stadiums and sporting facilities have been damaged or destroyed by shelling and airstrikes, or have been repurposed for military use or to house displaced people. The Syrian Premier League has continued to operate in a fractured and limited capacity within government-held areas, but many clubs have been displaced or have ceased to exist. The national football team has become a deeply polarizing entity. While the government has used the team’s continued participation in international competitions as a propaganda tool to project a sense of normalcy, many opposition supporters view the team as representing the regime, not the Syrian people. Some prominent players have defected, while others have continued to play for the national side, creating a painful division in a realm that once served to unite the country.

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32) Environmental Concerns

Even before the onset of the devastating civil war in 2011, Syria was facing a host of serious and escalating environmental challenges. At the forefront of these issues was water scarcity. The country is located in a semi-arid region, and its water resources were already under immense strain due to a combination of factors, including rapid population growth, inefficient agricultural practices, and climate change. A severe drought that struck the country between 2006 and 2010 was one of the worst in its modern history. This drought had a catastrophic impact on the agricultural sector, particularly in the northeastern breadbasket region, leading to widespread crop failure, the death of livestock, and the internal displacement of hundreds of thousands of farming families who migrated to urban centers in search of work. Many analysts believe this climate-induced environmental and social crisis was a significant contributing factor to the social unrest that erupted in 2011. The management of transboundary rivers, particularly the Euphrates, which Syria shares with Turkey and Iraq, was also a source of regional tension and a major environmental concern.

Beyond water scarcity, Syria was grappling with issues of land degradation and desertification. Overgrazing of rangelands, unsustainable farming methods, and the expansion of agriculture into marginal lands were leading to soil erosion and the loss of fertile topsoil. The country’s forest cover was limited and under pressure from illegal logging and urban expansion. In industrial areas and around major cities, air and water pollution were growing concerns. Untreated or poorly treated wastewater from residential and industrial sources was often discharged directly into rivers, contaminating water supplies and harming ecosystems. Air pollution from outdated industrial facilities, power plants, and a growing number of vehicles was a noticeable problem in cities like Damascus and Aleppo. The legal and institutional framework for environmental protection was weak, and enforcement of existing regulations was often lacking.

The civil war has transformed these pre-existing environmental problems into a full-blown catastrophe. The conflict has had a devastating impact on every aspect of the environment, creating what many have termed a “toxic legacy” for future generations. Widespread and indiscriminate bombing has destroyed sanitation systems, water treatment plants, and industrial facilities, leading to the massive contamination of water and soil with hazardous materials and raw sewage. The collapse of governance and the breakdown of waste management services have resulted in the accumulation of vast amounts of rubble and garbage in cities, posing a severe public health risk. The conflict has also spurred widespread deforestation, as displaced people and those facing fuel shortages have resorted to cutting down trees for firewood. The targeting of oil infrastructure has led to numerous oil spills, further polluting land and water. The long-term environmental consequences of the war will be profound, complicating any future efforts at reconstruction and posing a lasting threat to the health and well-being of the Syrian people.

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33) Marriage & Courtship

Marriage in Syrian society, viewed through a cultural and historical lens, is a cornerstone of social life, traditionally seen as a vital rite of passage and the foundation of the family unit. Historically, marriages were often arranged or semi-arranged between families, with the primary goal being to create a stable and socially compatible union. While individual choice has become more common, particularly in urban and more secular circles, the family’s involvement and blessing have traditionally remained a crucial part of the process. Courtship was typically a modest and supervised affair. The process would often begin with a formal visit by the prospective groom’s family to the prospective bride’s family to state their intentions. If both families were agreeable, it would allow for a period of chaperoned meetings where the couple could get to know each other within the family context. The engagement, known as the “khutbah,” is a significant event in itself, a formal agreement between the families that is often celebrated with a large party.

The wedding celebration, or “urs,” is traditionally a joyous, elaborate, and multi-day affair that involves the entire community. The specifics of the celebration can vary by region and religious community, but they are generally characterized by feasting, music, and dancing. The legal and religious formalization of the marriage is the “Katb al-Kitab,” the signing of the marriage contract, which is typically officiated by a religious figure, such as a Sheikh for Muslims or a priest for Christians. Following this, the festivities commence. These often include a henna party for the bride and her female relatives and friends before the main wedding day. The wedding reception is a grand celebration, a testament to the family’s hospitality and social standing, where guests are treated to an abundance of food and sweets. It must be stated with profound sadness that the ongoing conflict has made such joyous and large-scale celebrations impossible for many. For millions of Syrians displaced by war, marriage has become a simple, stark ceremony of survival, often taking place in refugee camps or in exile, a far cry from the rich traditions of the past.

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34) Work Opportunities

Prior to the 2011 conflict, the Syrian labor market was characterized by a large public sector, a significant informal economy, and a private sector that was beginning to expand due to slow economic liberalization. The government was the largest single employer in the country, with a substantial portion of the workforce employed in public administration, state-owned enterprises, and the security forces. These jobs, while often low-paying, were sought after because they offered a high degree of job security and benefits like pensions. The agricultural sector was also a major source of employment, particularly in the rural areas of the country, providing livelihoods for millions of farmers and agricultural laborers. The industrial sector, centered in major cities like Aleppo and Damascus, provided jobs in textiles, food processing, and manufacturing. A growing tourism and services sector was also creating new opportunities in hotels, restaurants, and retail, especially for younger Syrians in urban centers.

Despite this structure, the pre-war economy faced significant challenges in providing sufficient work opportunities for its young and rapidly growing population. The official unemployment rate was high, and youth unemployment was a particularly acute problem. This led many Syrians to seek work in the informal economy, in small, unregulated businesses, or as day laborers. For those with higher education, opportunities could be limited, leading to underemployment or a brain drain of skilled professionals seeking better prospects abroad, particularly in the Gulf states. The cautious economic reforms initiated in the 2000s had created some new private-sector jobs, especially in banking and telecommunications, but they had not been far-reaching enough to solve the underlying structural problems of unemployment and corruption that contributed to the social and economic grievances preceding the 2011 uprising.

The current situation regarding work opportunities in Syria is nothing short of catastrophic. The civil war has completely decimated the economy and shattered the labor market. The UN estimates that the unemployment rate has reached astronomical levels, with the vast majority of the population now living in extreme poverty and unable to secure a formal livelihood. The industrial heartland of Aleppo has been destroyed, and countless businesses and factories across the country have been looted, damaged, or forced to close. The agricultural sector has been crippled by the conflict. The tourism industry has been entirely obliterated. The formal economy has collapsed and been replaced by a war economy, where the only available “work” for many is in armed militias or illicit activities like smuggling. For the average Syrian, the concept of a stable job or a career has been replaced by a daily struggle for survival. The prospects for decent work are non-existent, and any future reconstruction will face the monumental task of rebuilding an entire economy from the ground up and creating livelihoods for a traumatized and impoverished population.

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35) Education

Before the devastating conflict began in 2011, Syria had a well-established and highly centralized public education system that had made significant strides in achieving widespread literacy and school enrollment. The system was managed by the Ministry of Education and was largely based on the French model. It provided 12 years of free and compulsory education for all children from the ages of 6 to 18. The structure consisted of six years of primary education, followed by three years of lower secondary education (preparatory school), and finally, three years of upper secondary education. Upon completion of lower secondary school, students would be streamed into either general secondary schools, which prepared them for university, or technical/vocational secondary schools, which provided training for specific trades and industries. The country had achieved near-universal primary school enrollment and a high literacy rate, which was a significant developmental achievement for the nation.

The general secondary school curriculum culminated in a highly competitive national examination known as the Baccalaureate. The results of this exam were the sole determinant for a student’s eligibility for higher education and which field of study they could enter. Students with the highest scores gained entry into prestigious faculties like medicine and engineering, while others were placed in different fields based on their performance. The higher education system consisted of several public universities, with the most prominent being Damascus University, the University of Aleppo, Tishreen University in Latakia, and Al-Baath University in Homs. These state-run universities were the main providers of tertiary education in the country. While the system succeeded in providing broad access to education, it was also criticized for its reliance on rote memorization, its outdated curricula, and a lack of emphasis on critical thinking. The system was also used by the Ba’athist state as a tool for political indoctrination, promoting its ideology and a cult of personality around the Assad family.

The impact of the civil war on the Syrian education system has been catastrophic, representing one of the most tragic consequences of the conflict. The UN and other international organizations have described the situation as a lost generation. A huge number of schools across the country have been damaged or completely destroyed by fighting, or have been repurposed to shelter displaced families or for military use. In many areas, the education system has completely collapsed. Millions of Syrian children are out of school, both inside Syria and in neighboring countries where they live as refugees. This has exposed them to risks of child labor, early marriage, and recruitment by armed groups. Teachers have been killed, arrested, or have fled the country. Even in areas where schools are still functioning, they are often overcrowded, lack basic resources, and operate under the constant threat of violence. The long-term consequences of this educational crisis are profound, as it will cripple the human capital needed for Syria’s future recovery and reconstruction.

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36) Communication & Connectivity

Before the 2011 conflict, Syria’s communication and connectivity infrastructure was in a state of controlled development, managed almost exclusively by the state. The Syrian Telecommunications Establishment (STE), a government-owned company, held a monopoly on all fixed-line telephone services in the country. While the network was relatively extensive, particularly in urban areas, the quality of service could be inconsistent, and acquiring a new landline often involved a long and bureaucratic process. Internet access began to be introduced in the early 2000s but was tightly controlled and monitored by the government. The state acted as the sole internet service provider, routing all traffic through state-controlled servers. This allowed the authorities to engage in extensive surveillance and to block access to a wide range of websites, including those of political opposition groups, human rights organizations, and many international news sources. Internet penetration was growing but remained relatively low compared to neighboring countries, and connection speeds were often slow.

The mobile communication sector saw more dynamism with the introduction of two private operators, Syriatel and MTN Syria, in the early 2000s. However, these companies were “private” only in name; they were closely linked to the ruling elite, with Rami Makhlouf, a cousin of President Bashar al-Assad, famously holding a controlling interest in Syriatel. These two companies operated as a duopoly, providing mobile services across the country. The proliferation of mobile phones significantly expanded access to communication for ordinary Syrians. By 2010, mobile phone penetration had become widespread. While this provided new avenues for communication, the networks were, like the internet, subject to state surveillance. The introduction of mobile internet and early smartphones began to open up new information spaces, a factor that would play a significant role in the initial stages of the 2011 uprising, as activists used social media to organize protests and disseminate information.

The civil war has completely devastated Syria’s communication infrastructure and has transformed the connectivity landscape into a tool of conflict. The physical infrastructure—including cell towers, fiber-optic cables, and central exchanges—has been systematically targeted and destroyed in the fighting, leading to frequent and prolonged communication blackouts in many parts of the country. The government has frequently and deliberately cut off internet and mobile services in opposition-held areas as a form of collective punishment and a tactic of war. In areas outside of government control, alternative and often makeshift communication systems have emerged, with people relying on expensive and unreliable satellite internet connections or accessing mobile networks from neighboring countries like Turkey or Jordan near the borders. The internet has become a key battleground for information warfare, with all sides in the conflict using it for propaganda, recruitment, and intelligence gathering. For ordinary Syrians, reliable and secure communication has become a scarce and dangerous commodity.

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37) National Symbols

Symbol Category	Symbol Name / Description
Official State Symbols
National Flag	The current flag used by the government is the former United Arab Republic flag: a tricolor of red, white, and black with two green stars. Opposition groups use a green, white, and black tricolor with three red stars.
Coat of Arms	The Hawk of Quraish, holding a shield with the national flag and a scroll with the words “Syrian Arab Republic.”
National Anthem	“Humat ad-Diyar” (Guardians of the Homeland).
Cultural & Historical Symbols
Iconic Landmark	The Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, a masterpiece of Islamic architecture.
Archaeological Symbol	The ruins of Palmyra, the ancient “Bride of the Desert.”
Historical City	Damascus, one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world.
National Flower	Jasmine, especially the Damascene Jasmine, is widely considered the unofficial national flower, famous for its scent.
National Tree	The Olive Tree, symbolizing peace, resilience, and its economic importance.
National Bird	The Northern Bald Ibis had a relict population near Palmyra but is now likely extinct in the wild in Syria. The Hawk of Quraish is a heraldic symbol.
Symbol of Craftsmanship	Damascene Sword and Brocade (Damask fabric), reflecting historical artisanal skill.

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38) Tourism (Historical Perspective)

From a historical perspective, prior to the 2011 conflict, Syria was a premier global destination for cultural and historical tourism, boasting a breathtaking collection of archaeological sites that spanned thousands of years of human civilization. The country was home to six UNESCO World Heritage sites, each a testament to the layers of history that had unfolded on its soil. The capital, Damascus, was a destination in itself. As one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities on Earth, its Old City is a labyrinth of narrow alleyways, ancient souqs (markets), mosques, and churches. The crown jewel was the magnificent Umayyad Mosque, a site of immense religious and architectural importance. The Old City of Aleppo, particularly its citadel which towered over the metropolis, and its vast, covered souq, were considered among the best-preserved and most vibrant examples of medieval Arab city life. Tourists would flock to Syria to walk through this living history, experiencing the unique blend of ancient heritage and modern life.

Beyond the ancient cities, Syria’s archaeological treasures were legendary. The ruins of Palmyra, the “Bride of the Desert,” were perhaps the most spectacular. This ancient oasis city, with its grand colonnaded street, temples, and theater, was a breathtaking example of Greco-Roman and Persian cultural fusion. The Crusader castles of Krak des Chevaliers and Qal’at Salah El-Din were considered among the finest and best-preserved examples of medieval military architecture in the world. The “Dead Cities” of northern Syria, a collection of hundreds of abandoned late-Roman and Byzantine settlements, offered a ghostly and poignant glimpse into a prosperous ancient rural society. The tourism industry was a significant and growing part of the Syrian economy, attracting millions of visitors who brought in vital foreign currency and supported a wide range of jobs in hospitality, guiding, and craftsmanship. The warmth and hospitality of the Syrian people were famous, making a trip to the country a deeply rewarding cultural experience. **It must be emphasized that this tourism industry has been completely destroyed by the war, and many of these irreplaceable world heritage sites have been heavily damaged or looted. Travel to these sites is impossible and extremely dangerous.**

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39) Visa and Entry Requirements (Historical Context)

This section describes the visa and entry requirements for Syria from a historical, pre-conflict perspective for informational purposes only. **Attempting to enter Syria is currently extremely dangerous, and all formal consular and immigration services have been disrupted or have ceased to function in a predictable manner. Borders are often closed or controlled by various armed groups.** Before 2011, all foreign nationals wishing to travel to Syria were required to obtain a visa prior to their arrival. Syria did not typically offer visas on arrival. The process required travelers to apply at a Syrian embassy or consulate in their country of residence. The requirements were fairly standard for the region, involving the submission of a completed visa application form, a passport valid for at least six months, passport-sized photographs, and a fee. The process could sometimes be lengthy and unpredictable, and applicants were often advised to apply well in advance of their planned travel dates.

The specific requirements and the likelihood of a visa being granted often depended on the applicant’s nationality. Citizens of most Arab countries were typically granted visas with relative ease, reflecting Syria’s long-standing policy of promoting Arab solidarity. For citizens of Western countries, the process could be more complex. Applicants often needed to provide additional documentation, such as a letter of invitation from a tour operator in Syria, confirmed hotel bookings, and a detailed itinerary. It was very common for independent travelers from Western countries to use the services of a Syrian tourism agency to facilitate the visa process, as this could often expedite the application. Visas were typically issued for a specific duration and for a set number of entries. Overstaying a visa without obtaining a proper extension from the immigration authorities could lead to fines and complications upon departure.

Entry into Syria was also subject to certain specific restrictions. Notably, any traveler whose passport bore an Israeli stamp or any evidence of travel to Israel would be denied entry. This was a strict policy enforced by immigration officials at all ports of entry. Upon arrival in Syria, visitors would have their passports stamped and would need to complete a landing card. For stays longer than a specified period (typically 15 days), foreign visitors were required to register with the immigration authorities. **Again, it is critical to understand that this entire system is no longer functioning. Embassies have closed, borders are not under unified control, and the security situation makes any attempt at entry a life-threatening risk. This information is purely historical.**

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40) Useful Resources (Advisories & Aid)

Given the current catastrophic situation in Syria, the most useful and responsible resources are not those related to travel, but those that provide up-to-date security information, travel advisories, and information on the humanitarian crisis. It is essential to consult your own government’s travel advisory website for the most current warnings.

• United States Department of State – Syria Travel Advisory: Provides detailed and current safety and security information for U.S. citizens.
• United Kingdom Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office (FCDO) – Syria Travel Advice: The official source of travel warnings for British nationals.
• Government of Canada – Syria Travel Advice: Official guidance and warnings for Canadian citizens.
• Australian Government (Smartraveller) – Syria Travel Advice: Provides safety information and warnings for Australian citizens.
• United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) – Syria: Offers detailed reports, situation updates, and data on the humanitarian crisis.
• UNHCR – The UN Refugee Agency – Syria Situation: Provides information and data on the Syrian refugee crisis.
• International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) – Syria: Details the work of the ICRC in providing humanitarian aid within Syria.
• Human Rights Watch – Syria: Publishes reports on the human rights situation in the country.

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